11.2 Europe and the European Union
4 min read•august 9, 2024
Europe and the European Union are key players in global politics. The EU, a unique political and economic union of 27 countries, has shaped the continent through integration and cooperation. Its complex structure includes institutions like the and Commission.
The EU faces challenges like and economic crises, but continues to evolve. It's working on strengthening its global role, managing borders, and deepening economic ties. Understanding the EU is crucial for grasping modern international relations and Europe's place in the world.
European Union Structure and Policies
Governance and Decision-Making Bodies
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- European Union (EU) functions as a political and economic union of 27 member states
- European Parliament serves as the directly elected legislative body of the EU
- Consists of 705 members elected by EU citizens
- Shares legislative power with the Council of the European Union
- Approves or rejects EU legislation and budget
- acts as the executive branch of the EU
- Proposes and enforces legislation
- Implements policies and EU budget
- Represents the EU in international negotiations
- Council of the European Union represents member state governments
- Adopts EU laws and coordinates policies
- Comprised of ministers from each member state, varying by policy area discussed
Foreign Policy and Expansion
- (CFSP) coordinates EU's diplomatic and security efforts
- Aims to strengthen EU's global role and promote international cooperation
- Focuses on conflict prevention, crisis management, and peacekeeping operations
- High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy leads CFSP implementation
- policy governs the process of admitting new member states to the EU
- Candidate countries must meet specific criteria ()
- Includes political, economic, and administrative reforms
- Recent additions include Croatia (2013) and ongoing negotiations with Western Balkan countries
Economic Integration
Monetary Union and Financial Stability
- currency serves as the official currency for 20 of the 27 EU member states
- Introduced in 1999 for non-cash transactions, physical currency in 2002
- (ECB) manages monetary policy for the
- Eliminates exchange rate fluctuations and reduces transaction costs within the Eurozone
- refers to the period of economic instability from 2009 to 2014
- Triggered by the global financial crisis and structural weaknesses in some member states
- Led to bailouts for Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Cyprus
- Resulted in stricter fiscal rules and the creation of the European Stability Mechanism
- coordinates economic policies among member states
- Annual cycle of economic policy coordination and surveillance
- Aims to prevent and correct macroeconomic imbalances
Freedom of Movement and Border Control
- allows free movement of people within the
- Covers 26 European countries (22 EU members and 4 non-EU members)
- Eliminates internal border checks and harmonizes external border controls
- Facilitates tourism, trade, and labor mobility within the zone
- (Frontex) manages EU's external borders
- Coordinates border control efforts among member states
- Conducts risk analyses and provides rapid border intervention teams
- harmonizes asylum procedures across the EU
- Sets minimum standards for processing and determining asylum applications
- Aims to ensure fair and efficient asylum procedures throughout the EU
Challenges and Changes
Brexit and Its Aftermath
- Brexit refers to the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union
- Referendum held in June 2016 resulted in 52% vote to leave the EU
- UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020, followed by a transition period
- governs post-Brexit relations
- Impact of Brexit on the EU includes:
- Loss of the UK's financial contributions to the EU budget
- Reshaping of EU institutions and voting dynamics
- Potential inspiration for Eurosceptic movements in other member states
- EU's response to Brexit involves:
- Strengthening internal cohesion among remaining member states
- Reforming EU institutions and policies to address citizen concerns
- Negotiating new trade agreements with non-EU countries
Security and Defense Cooperation
- (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) complements EU defense efforts
- 21 EU member states are also NATO members
- EU-NATO cooperation focuses on hybrid threats, maritime security, and cybersecurity
- (CSDP) strengthens EU's military capabilities
- Conducts civilian and military missions outside the EU
- (PESCO) enhances defense cooperation among participating member states
- supports research and development of defense technologies
- Aims to reduce duplication and increase interoperability of defense systems
- Promotes cooperation among member states' defense industries
Key Terms to Review (33)
Angela Merkel: Angela Merkel is a German politician who served as the Chancellor of Germany from 2005 to 2021, becoming one of the most powerful women in the world. Known for her pragmatic leadership style and strong influence in European and global politics, Merkel played a crucial role in navigating various crises in Europe, including the eurozone crisis and the refugee crisis, while promoting European integration and stability.
Brexit: Brexit refers to the United Kingdom's decision to leave the European Union, which was formally initiated after a nationwide referendum held on June 23, 2016. The term represents not just a political shift but also a significant economic and social transformation, highlighting issues of national sovereignty, immigration, and trade relations. Brexit's implications stretch across Europe and the world, shaping foreign policy debates and economic strategies as nations respond to this historic change.
Cohesion Policy: Cohesion Policy refers to the European Union's strategy aimed at promoting economic, social, and territorial cohesion among its member states. This policy seeks to reduce disparities between regions, enhance economic growth, and ensure balanced development across the EU by allocating financial resources to less developed areas. It focuses on fostering solidarity and integration within the union, which is crucial for maintaining stability and unity among member states.
Common Agricultural Policy: The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is a European Union policy aimed at supporting farmers, improving agricultural productivity, and ensuring a stable supply of affordable food. Established in the 1960s, the CAP has evolved to include various measures such as direct payments to farmers, market intervention, and rural development programs, reflecting the EU's commitment to sustainable agriculture and food security.
Common European Asylum System: The Common European Asylum System (CEAS) is a framework established by the European Union to ensure that asylum seekers are treated fairly and uniformly across member states. This system aims to harmonize national asylum policies, streamline procedures, and enhance cooperation among countries to manage asylum applications more effectively, reflecting the EU's commitment to human rights and protection of refugees.
Common foreign and security policy: The common foreign and security policy (CFSP) is a framework established by the European Union to coordinate and unify the foreign policies of its member states, aimed at promoting peace, stability, and security in Europe and beyond. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including diplomatic efforts, military cooperation, and the implementation of sanctions or other measures against third countries. This policy reflects the EU's commitment to acting collectively on the international stage and addresses global challenges through a unified approach.
Common Security and Defence Policy: The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is a key aspect of the European Union's efforts to enhance its role in global security, enabling the EU to manage crises and promote peace through military and civilian missions. This policy reflects a collective commitment among EU member states to work together in addressing security challenges, emphasizing the importance of shared resources and strategic cooperation.
Constructivism: Constructivism is a theoretical approach in international relations that emphasizes the role of social constructs, ideas, and identities in shaping state behavior and the international system. This perspective posits that realities are socially constructed rather than given, which influences how states perceive threats, define their interests, and interact with one another.
Copenhagen Criteria: The Copenhagen Criteria are a set of essential requirements that countries must meet to join the European Union. These criteria focus on political, economic, and legislative standards, emphasizing the importance of democracy, rule of law, and respect for human rights as fundamental pillars for EU membership.
Enlargement: Enlargement refers to the process of expanding the membership of an organization, particularly in the context of international relations and regional organizations like the European Union. It involves the integration of new member states, which can lead to significant political, economic, and social changes within both the existing members and the newcomers. This process is often driven by the desire for greater stability, economic development, and geopolitical influence in a particular region.
EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement: The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement is a comprehensive deal that outlines the terms of trade, security, and various cooperative measures between the European Union and the United Kingdom following Brexit. This agreement, which took effect on January 1, 2021, aims to facilitate trade while establishing new frameworks for political and economic relationships between the two entities, highlighting the shift in dynamics after the UK's departure from the EU.
Euro: The euro is the official currency used by 19 of the 27 European Union member countries, collectively known as the Eurozone. It was introduced to facilitate economic integration and trade among these nations, simplifying transactions and enhancing price stability. The euro also represents a significant step in political and economic unity within Europe, influencing various actors on the global stage.
European Border and Coast Guard Agency: The European Border and Coast Guard Agency, commonly known as Frontex, is an agency of the European Union responsible for managing the security of the EU's external borders. It was established to enhance cooperation between member states in border management and to facilitate the effective control of migration flows, contributing to the broader context of Europe and the European Union.
European Central Bank: The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and is responsible for monetary policy within the Eurozone, which includes 19 of the 27 European Union member states. Established in 1998, its primary objective is to maintain price stability and control inflation, ensuring a stable economic environment across the Eurozone. The ECB plays a crucial role in overseeing the banking system and implementing monetary policy tools such as interest rate adjustments and quantitative easing.
European Commission: The European Commission is the executive branch of the European Union responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, and managing the day-to-day operations of the EU. It plays a crucial role in ensuring that EU policies and laws are applied uniformly across member states, acting as a guardian of the treaties that form the basis of the Union.
European Defence Fund: The European Defence Fund (EDF) is a financial mechanism established by the European Union to support collaborative defense research and development projects among member states. It aims to enhance Europe's strategic autonomy by fostering cooperation in defense capabilities, promoting innovation, and ensuring that the EU can respond effectively to security challenges.
European Parliament: The European Parliament is the directly elected legislative body of the European Union (EU), representing the interests of EU citizens. It plays a key role in shaping EU law and policies, working alongside the European Commission and the Council of the European Union to create legislation, oversee the budget, and ensure democratic accountability within the EU.
European Semester: The European Semester is an annual cycle of economic policy coordination within the European Union, aimed at ensuring that member states align their fiscal policies with EU economic guidelines. This process involves the assessment of national budgets and economic reforms to promote stability, growth, and convergence among member states while addressing macroeconomic imbalances.
Eurozone: The eurozone is a geographical and economic region that consists of European Union (EU) countries that have adopted the euro (€) as their official currency. This monetary union aims to facilitate economic integration and promote stability among member states, which share a common monetary policy governed by the European Central Bank.
Eurozone crisis: The eurozone crisis refers to a multi-faceted financial crisis that began in late 2009 and primarily affected countries that use the euro as their currency. It involved sovereign debt crises in several Eurozone nations, most notably Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Italy, leading to economic instability, high unemployment rates, and severe austerity measures. The crisis highlighted weaknesses in the Eurozone's financial structure and raised questions about fiscal policies and economic governance within the European Union.
Fall of the Berlin Wall: The Fall of the Berlin Wall refers to the dismantling of the physical barrier that separated East and West Berlin on November 9, 1989. This historic event symbolized the end of the Cold War and marked a significant turning point in European history, leading to the reunification of Germany and influencing the broader integration of Eastern Europe into the European Union.
Intergovernmentalism: Intergovernmentalism is a theoretical framework in international relations where the primary actors are states that cooperate on a voluntary basis, primarily through formal agreements and treaties. This approach emphasizes the importance of state sovereignty and the idea that decisions are made by consensus among member states, particularly in regional organizations. It highlights how states maintain their independence while pursuing collective goals, often seen in contexts where national interests prevail over supranational authority.
Jean Monnet: Jean Monnet was a French political economist and diplomat, known as one of the founding fathers of European integration. He played a pivotal role in establishing the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which laid the groundwork for the European Union. Monnet's vision emphasized cooperation among European nations to promote peace and economic stability.
Lisbon Treaty: The Lisbon Treaty is a treaty that amends the two treaties which form the constitutional basis of the European Union (EU). It was signed in December 2007 and came into force in December 2009, aiming to enhance the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the EU while improving its capacity to act on the global stage.
Maastricht Treaty: The Maastricht Treaty, officially known as the Treaty on European Union, is a landmark agreement signed in 1992 that established the European Union (EU) and laid the foundation for the euro currency. This treaty marked a significant step in regional cooperation by promoting deeper economic and political integration among its member states, facilitating collaboration across various sectors and influencing the governance structure of Europe.
NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance established in 1949, consisting of North American and European countries aimed at collective defense against aggression. NATO's creation marked a significant shift in international relations, as it emphasized the importance of mutual defense and cooperation among member states, particularly during the Cold War, and continues to play a crucial role in security dynamics in Europe and beyond.
Partnership agreements: Partnership agreements are formal arrangements between entities, often countries or organizations, that outline the terms and conditions of their collaboration. These agreements can cover various areas such as trade, defense, and environmental cooperation, fostering relationships that enhance mutual interests and objectives among the parties involved.
Permanent Structured Cooperation: Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) is a framework established by the European Union to deepen defense cooperation among member states. It allows participating countries to work together on shared security and defense projects, enhancing their military capabilities and fostering closer collaboration within the EU. PESCO signifies a commitment to a more integrated defense approach in response to global security challenges.
Qualified majority voting: Qualified majority voting is a decision-making process used in the European Union that requires more than just a simple majority to pass legislation. This system ensures that a certain threshold of votes is needed, reflecting both the population size and the number of member states. It helps balance the interests of smaller and larger countries, fostering cooperation and stability within the EU's legislative framework.
Realism: Realism is a theory in international relations that emphasizes the competitive and conflictual side of international politics, focusing on the role of states as the primary actors in an anarchic global system. This perspective highlights the importance of power, national interest, and the idea that moral norms cannot be prioritized over state security and survival.
Schengen Agreement: The Schengen Agreement is a treaty that established the Schengen Area, allowing for passport-free travel across many European countries. This agreement facilitates the movement of people, promoting economic cooperation and integration among its member states while maintaining common border controls at external borders. It plays a crucial role in regional cooperation and has significant implications for the European Union's internal policies.
Schengen Area: The Schengen Area is a group of European countries that have abolished passport and other types of border control at their mutual borders, allowing for free movement of people among member states. This agreement enhances cooperation between countries and plays a significant role in shaping policies related to migration, security, and trade across Europe.
Supranationalism: Supranationalism refers to a form of governance where power and authority are transferred from individual states to a higher authority that can make decisions binding on those states. This concept is crucial in understanding how regional organizations and larger entities, like the European Union, promote cooperation among member countries while potentially limiting their sovereignty. The key feature of supranationalism is the establishment of institutions that operate above national governments, allowing for collective decision-making and policy implementation.