Glossary

2.2 Eastern philosophy

11 min read•august 21, 2024

Eastern philosophy encompasses diverse traditions from ancient Asian civilizations, offering unique perspectives on existence, ethics, and human nature. These philosophical systems, including , Hinduism, , and , contrast with Western approaches and shape cultural landscapes.

Understanding Eastern philosophy provides valuable insights into human thought and cultural diversity. Key concepts like , rebirth, , and offer alternative views on reality and ethics, broadening philosophical horizons and enhancing cross-cultural understanding in humanities studies.

Origins of Eastern philosophy

  • Eastern philosophy encompasses diverse traditions that emerged in ancient civilizations of Asia, shaping cultural, religious, and intellectual landscapes
  • These philosophical systems offer unique perspectives on existence, ethics, and human nature, contrasting with Western philosophical approaches
  • Understanding Eastern philosophy provides valuable insights into the rich tapestry of human thought and cultural diversity in humanities studies

Ancient Indian traditions

Top images from around the web for Ancient Indian traditions

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Ancient Indian traditions

1 of 3
  • Vedic philosophy forms the foundation of Indian thought, dating back to 1500-500 BCE
  • Upanishads introduce key concepts like Brahman (ultimate reality) and (individual soul)
  • Six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy develop, including , , and
  • Non-orthodox traditions emerge, such as Buddhism and , challenging Vedic authority

Chinese philosophical roots

  • Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BCE)
  • Hundred Schools of Thought flourish, including Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism
  • (Book of Changes) influences Chinese metaphysical and cosmological thinking
  • Concept of (the Way) becomes central to Chinese philosophical discourse

Japanese philosophical foundations

  • , Japan's indigenous religion, shapes early Japanese worldview and ethics
  • Buddhism arrives in Japan in 6th century CE, blending with native beliefs
  • Japanese philosophy synthesizes Chinese, Indian, and indigenous traditions
  • emerges as a distinct Japanese philosophical and aesthetic tradition

Major Eastern philosophical traditions

  • Eastern philosophical traditions encompass a wide range of beliefs and practices that have shaped Asian cultures for millennia
  • These traditions often emphasize harmony, balance, and in contrast to Western philosophical approaches
  • Studying major Eastern philosophical traditions provides insights into diverse worldviews and ethical systems in humanities

Buddhism vs Hinduism

  • Buddhism originates from 's teachings in 5th century BCE India
  • form the core of Buddhist philosophy (suffering, cause, cessation, path)
  • Hinduism evolves from Vedic traditions, emphasizing diverse paths to spiritual realization
  • Concept of atman (individual soul) in Hinduism contrasts with Buddhist doctrine of (no-self)
  • Both traditions share beliefs in karma and rebirth, but interpret them differently

Confucianism and Taoism

  • Confucianism focuses on social harmony, ethical behavior, and proper relationships
  • in Confucian ethics (, , , , )
  • Taoism emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, or the natural order of the universe
  • Concept of (non-action) central to Taoist philosophy
  • Both traditions influence Chinese culture, politics, and social structures for over two millennia

Shinto and Zen

  • Shinto, Japan's indigenous religion, emphasizes nature worship and ritual purity
  • (spirits or deities) play a central role in Shinto beliefs and practices
  • Zen Buddhism develops in Japan, focusing on direct experience and
  • Zen concepts like (no-mind) and (paradoxical riddles) challenge conventional thinking
  • Both traditions influence Japanese aesthetics, arts, and daily life

Key concepts in Eastern philosophy

  • Eastern philosophy introduces unique concepts that shape understanding of reality, self, and ethics
  • These key concepts often differ significantly from Western philosophical ideas, offering alternative perspectives
  • Exploring these concepts enhances cross-cultural understanding and broadens philosophical horizons in humanities studies

Karma and rebirth

  • Karma refers to the law of cause and effect in moral and spiritual realms
  • Actions and intentions create karmic seeds that influence future experiences
  • Rebirth or reincarnation involves the continuity of consciousness across multiple lifetimes
  • Karma and rebirth interconnect, shaping the cycle of (cyclic existence)
  • Different schools interpret karma and rebirth variously (Buddhist no-self vs Hindu eternal soul)

Yin and yang

  • Chinese concept representing complementary and interconnected forces in the universe
  • Yin associated with feminine, dark, passive, and receptive qualities
  • Yang associated with masculine, light, active, and creative qualities
  • Balance and harmony between yin and yang considered essential for well-being
  • Concept applies to various domains (medicine, martial arts, social relationships)

Dharma and moksha

  • Dharma in Hinduism refers to cosmic order, duty, and righteous living
  • Buddhist interpretation of dharma focuses on teachings and ultimate truth
  • represents liberation from the cycle of rebirth in Hindu philosophy
  • in Buddhism parallels , signifying the end of suffering and rebirth
  • Both concepts emphasize spiritual growth and ultimate freedom from worldly attachments

Influential Eastern philosophers

  • Eastern philosophy boasts a rich tradition of influential thinkers who shaped cultural and intellectual landscapes
  • These philosophers developed unique systems of thought that continue to impact modern philosophy and society
  • Studying influential Eastern philosophers provides insights into the evolution of ideas and their cultural contexts in humanities

Confucius and Laozi

  • Confucius (551-479 BCE) establishes ethical and social philosophy emphasizing virtue and proper relationships
  • Analects compile Confucius' teachings on governance, ethics, and self-cultivation
  • , legendary figure associated with Taoism, attributed authorship of
  • Tao Te Ching presents core Taoist concepts (Tao, wu wei, simplicity)
  • Both philosophers' ideas continue to influence Chinese and East Asian cultures

Buddha and Nagarjuna

  • Siddhartha Gautama () founds Buddhism in 5th century BCE India
  • Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path form core of Buddha's teachings
  • (c. 150-250 CE) develops Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism
  • Nagarjuna's philosophy of (sunyata) challenges essentialist views of reality
  • Both thinkers' ideas spread throughout Asia, influencing diverse cultures and philosophies

Sankara and Ramanuja

  • (788-820 CE) systematizes philosophy
  • Sankara's non-dualistic interpretation of Upanishads emphasizes ultimate unity of Brahman and Atman
  • (1017-1137 CE) develops , a qualified
  • Ramanuja's philosophy emphasizes devotion (bhakti) and the reality of individual souls
  • Both philosophers' interpretations of Vedanta continue to influence Hindu thought and practice

Eastern vs Western philosophy

  • Comparing Eastern and Western philosophical traditions reveals fundamental differences in approaches and assumptions
  • These distinctions offer valuable insights into diverse cultural perspectives on reality, knowledge, and ethics
  • Understanding these differences enhances cross-cultural dialogue and broadens philosophical horizons in humanities studies

Approaches to metaphysics

  • Eastern philosophy often emphasizes non-dualistic views of reality (Advaita Vedanta, Taoism)
  • Western metaphysics tends towards dualistic frameworks (Platonic Forms, Cartesian mind-body dualism)
  • Concept of emptiness (sunyata) in Buddhism challenges Western notions of substance and essence
  • Eastern traditions often view reality as cyclical, while Western thought emphasizes linear progression
  • Nature of causality differs (karma in Eastern thought vs mechanistic causation in Western philosophy)

Concepts of self

  • Eastern philosophies often propose non-essential or no-self views (Buddhist anatta, Taoist wu-wei)
  • Western philosophy generally assumes a stable, essential self (Cartesian cogito, Kantian transcendental ego)
  • Eastern traditions emphasize interconnectedness and dissolution of ego boundaries
  • Western thought tends to prioritize individual autonomy and self-actualization
  • Concepts of personal identity and continuity vary between Eastern and Western approaches

Ethics and morality

  • Eastern ethics often focus on virtue cultivation and harmony (Confucian ren, Buddhist compassion)
  • Western moral philosophy emphasizes rules, duties, and consequences (deontology, utilitarianism)
  • Eastern traditions view ethics as inseparable from metaphysics and spirituality
  • Western ethics tends to separate moral philosophy from religious or metaphysical considerations
  • Concepts of moral agency and free will differ between Eastern and Western ethical frameworks

Eastern philosophy in practice

  • Eastern philosophical traditions emphasize practical application of wisdom in daily life
  • These practices often integrate physical, mental, and spiritual dimensions of human experience
  • Exploring Eastern philosophy in practice provides insights into alternative approaches to well-being and self-cultivation in humanities studies

Meditation and mindfulness

  • Various meditation techniques develop across Eastern traditions (Buddhist vipassana, Hindu yoga)
  • practices emphasize present-moment awareness and non-judgmental observation
  • Meditation aims to cultivate wisdom, compassion, and insight into the nature of mind and reality
  • Scientific research explores benefits of meditation on mental health and cognitive function
  • Mindfulness-based interventions increasingly adopted in Western psychology and healthcare

Martial arts philosophy

  • Eastern martial arts integrate physical training with philosophical and spiritual principles
  • Chinese martial arts (kung fu) embody Taoist and Buddhist concepts (, qi energy)
  • Japanese martial arts (budo) incorporate Zen Buddhist and Shinto elements
  • Concepts like mushin (no-mind) and (continuous awareness) apply beyond combat
  • emphasizes self-discipline, respect, and harmony with nature

Tea ceremonies

  • Japanese tea ceremony () embodies Zen Buddhist aesthetics and philosophy
  • Four principles of tea ceremony (harmony, respect, purity, tranquility) reflect broader cultural values
  • Chinese gongfu tea ceremony emphasizes mindfulness and appreciation of tea's qualities
  • serve as moving meditation, cultivating presence and aesthetic sensitivity
  • Practice of tea ceremonies influences architecture, ceramics, and social etiquette

Impact on world culture

  • Eastern philosophy has exerted significant influence on global culture, arts, and intellectual traditions
  • This cross-cultural exchange has led to new syntheses and interpretations of philosophical ideas
  • Studying the impact of Eastern philosophy on world culture reveals the interconnectedness of human thought in humanities

Eastern philosophy in literature

  • Beat Generation writers (Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac) incorporate Zen Buddhist themes
  • Hermann Hesse's "Siddhartha" popularizes Buddhist concepts in Western literature
  • Haiku poetry reflects Zen aesthetic principles of simplicity and present-moment awareness
  • Magical realism in Latin American literature draws inspiration from Eastern mystical traditions
  • Contemporary authors (Pico Iyer, Jhumpa Lahiri) explore East-West cultural intersections

Influence on Western thought

  • Transcendentalism (Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau) draws on Hindu philosophy
  • Schopenhauer's philosophy influenced by Buddhist and Hindu concepts
  • Carl Jung incorporates Eastern ideas into his psychological theories (mandala symbolism)
  • Phenomenology and existentialism engage with Eastern concepts of self and consciousness
  • Environmental ethics and deep ecology movements draw inspiration from Eastern philosophies

Modern applications

  • Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) adapts Buddhist meditation for clinical settings
  • Yoga's popularity in the West leads to diverse interpretations and applications
  • Eastern philosophical concepts influence business management (servant leadership, mindful leadership)
  • Positive psychology incorporates Eastern ideas of well-being and flourishing
  • Environmental movements draw on Eastern concepts of interconnectedness and harmony with nature

Contemporary Eastern philosophy

  • Contemporary Eastern philosophy engages with modern challenges while reinterpreting traditional concepts
  • These developments reflect ongoing dialogue between Eastern and Western philosophical traditions
  • Exploring contemporary Eastern philosophy provides insights into evolving cultural identities and global philosophical discourse in humanities

Neo-Confucianism

  • Revitalizes Confucian philosophy in response to Buddhist and Taoist influences
  • (12th century) systematizes Neo-Confucian metaphysics and ethics
  • Modern Neo-Confucians (Tu Weiming, Mou Zongsan) engage with Western philosophy
  • Explores relevance of Confucian values in contemporary society and politics
  • Debates role of Confucianism in East Asian modernization and democratization

Buddhist modernism

  • Reinterprets Buddhist teachings in light of modern science and Western philosophy
  • Emphasizes rationality, empiricism, and compatibility with scientific worldview
  • Figures like Thich Nhat Hanh and the Dalai Lama promote
  • Secular Buddhism emerges, focusing on meditation and ethics without traditional cosmology
  • Mindfulness movement popularizes Buddhist practices in secular contexts

Comparative philosophy

  • Develops methodologies for cross-cultural philosophical dialogue and comparison
  • Explores commonalities and differences between Eastern and Western philosophical traditions
  • Challenges Eurocentric assumptions in academic philosophy
  • Examines translation issues and conceptual equivalences across philosophical traditions
  • Promotes global philosophy integrating diverse cultural perspectives

Critiques and challenges

  • Eastern philosophy faces various critiques and challenges in contemporary academic and cultural contexts
  • These critiques highlight issues of interpretation, representation, and relevance in a globalized world
  • Examining critiques and challenges of Eastern philosophy fosters critical thinking and nuanced understanding in humanities studies

Orientalism in philosophy

  • Edward Said's concept of Orientalism critiques Western representations of Eastern thought
  • Questions romanticization and exoticization of Eastern philosophy in Western discourse
  • Examines power dynamics in academic study and popular interpretations of Eastern traditions
  • Challenges essentialist views of "Eastern" vs "Western" philosophy
  • Encourages reflexivity and cultural sensitivity in cross-cultural philosophical engagement

Gender perspectives

  • Feminist scholars critique male-dominated narratives in traditional Eastern philosophy
  • Examines gender roles and hierarchies in Confucian, Hindu, and Buddhist traditions
  • Reinterprets key concepts (yin-yang, shakti) from feminist perspectives
  • Explores contributions of women philosophers and practitioners in Eastern traditions
  • Addresses issues of gender equality and women's rights in contemporary Asian societies

Globalization effects

  • Rapid modernization challenges traditional Eastern philosophical worldviews
  • Examines tension between cultural preservation and adaptation to global trends
  • Explores impact of Western consumerism and individualism on Eastern societies
  • Addresses environmental and social justice issues from Eastern philosophical perspectives
  • Questions relevance and application of ancient wisdom in contemporary global contexts

Eastern philosophy in arts

  • Eastern philosophical concepts have profoundly influenced various art forms across cultures
  • These artistic expressions often serve as vehicles for communicating complex philosophical ideas
  • Exploring Eastern philosophy in arts reveals the interconnectedness of aesthetics, spirituality, and cultural values in humanities studies

Symbolism in Eastern art

  • Mandala designs in Hindu and Buddhist art represent cosmic order and spiritual journey
  • Zen rock gardens embody concepts of emptiness and mindfulness
  • Chinese landscape painting expresses Taoist principles of harmony with nature
  • Symbolic hand gestures (mudras) in Indian art convey spiritual and philosophical meanings
  • Use of negative space in East Asian art reflects concepts of emptiness and

Philosophical themes in literature

  • Haiku poetry captures Zen Buddhist emphasis on present-moment awareness
  • Classical Chinese poetry explores Taoist themes of nature and simplicity
  • Indian epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana) incorporate Hindu philosophical concepts
  • Japanese novels (Yukio Mishima, Haruki Murakami) engage with Zen and Shinto themes
  • Contemporary Asian literature grapples with traditional philosophy in modern contexts

Influence on architecture

  • Buddhist stupas and pagodas symbolize cosmic mountain and spiritual ascent
  • Feng shui principles guide traditional Chinese architecture and urban planning
  • Japanese tea houses embody wabi-sabi aesthetic of imperfection and transience
  • Hindu temple architecture represents cosmic order and spiritual symbolism
  • Modern Asian architecture integrates traditional philosophical concepts with contemporary design

Future of Eastern philosophy

  • Eastern philosophy continues to evolve and adapt to contemporary global challenges
  • Ongoing dialogue between Eastern and Western traditions shapes the future of philosophical inquiry
  • Exploring the future of Eastern philosophy provides insights into emerging trends and potential contributions to global thought in humanities

Cross-cultural dialogues

  • Increased academic and cultural exchanges facilitate deeper understanding between traditions
  • Comparative philosophy develops new methodologies for cross-cultural philosophical engagement
  • Digital platforms enable global conversations and collaborations among philosophers
  • Challenges of translation and interpretation addressed through interdisciplinary approaches
  • Emerging field of world philosophy seeks to integrate diverse philosophical traditions

Integration with science

  • Dialogue between Buddhist philosophy and cognitive science explores nature of mind and consciousness
  • Taoist concepts of interconnectedness resonate with systems theory and ecology
  • Mindfulness research bridges contemplative traditions with neuroscience and psychology
  • Quantum physics finds parallels with non-dualistic Eastern metaphysical concepts
  • Environmental philosophy draws on Eastern ideas of harmony with nature to address climate crisis

Relevance in modern society

  • Eastern philosophical approaches to ethics and well-being inform contemporary lifestyle trends
  • Mindfulness and meditation practices increasingly adopted in education and corporate settings
  • Eastern concepts of interconnectedness influence approaches to global challenges (climate change, social justice)
  • Traditional wisdom reexamined for insights into sustainable living and social harmony
  • Eastern philosophical perspectives contribute to debates on artificial intelligence and transhumanism

Key Terms to Review (64)

Adi Sankara: Adi Sankara was an influential Indian philosopher and theologian who lived in the early 8th century. He is best known for consolidating the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which emphasizes non-dualism and the idea that the individual self (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman) are one. His teachings and writings have had a profound impact on Eastern philosophy, shaping the understanding of spirituality and the nature of reality in Hindu thought.
Advaita vedanta: Advaita Vedanta is a non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy that emphasizes the idea of oneness between the individual soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). It teaches that the perceived duality of existence is an illusion (Maya), and realizing the unity of Atman and Brahman leads to liberation (Moksha). This philosophy plays a significant role in Eastern thought by providing a framework for understanding existence and consciousness.
Anatta: Anatta, often translated as 'non-self' or 'no-soul', is a fundamental concept in Buddhism that refers to the idea that there is no permanent, unchanging self or essence in living beings. This teaching emphasizes the impermanence of all things and challenges the notion of a fixed identity, suggesting that what we perceive as the 'self' is merely a collection of changing phenomena and experiences.
Ancient China: Ancient China refers to the civilization that developed along the Yellow River and Yangtze River valleys, known for its rich cultural heritage, advancements in technology, philosophy, and governance. This historical period laid the foundation for one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations, influencing not just Eastern philosophy but also social structure, art, and political thought.
Atman: Atman refers to the individual soul or self in Hindu philosophy, embodying the true essence of a person beyond the physical body and mind. It is considered eternal, unchanging, and a fragment of the universal spirit, Brahman. This concept is central to understanding one's purpose and the cycle of life, influencing how individuals perceive their connection to the universe and their spiritual journey.
Benevolence: Benevolence is the quality of being well-meaning and kind, often associated with a desire to promote the happiness and welfare of others. In many Eastern philosophies, this concept extends beyond mere kindness, embodying a sense of compassion and altruism that influences ethical behavior and social harmony. The practice of benevolence is viewed as essential for individual growth and societal cohesion, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all beings and the importance of acting with goodwill towards others.
Buddha: Buddha, meaning 'the Enlightened One,' refers to Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, who achieved enlightenment and shared his insights to help others attain spiritual liberation. His teachings focus on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which provide a framework for overcoming suffering and achieving Nirvana.
Buddhism: Buddhism is a spiritual and philosophical tradition that originated in ancient India around the 5th century BCE, founded by Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha. It emphasizes the path to enlightenment through practices like meditation, ethical conduct, and wisdom, aiming to understand the nature of suffering and achieve Nirvana. This belief system connects deeply with concepts of Eastern thought, religious symbolism, and the cultural landscape of ancient civilizations.
Buddhist Modernism: Buddhist Modernism refers to a contemporary interpretation and adaptation of traditional Buddhist practices and beliefs that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, influenced by Western ideas and modernity. This movement often emphasizes meditation, mindfulness, and ethical living, seeking to make Buddhism more accessible and relevant in a rapidly changing world. By integrating scientific insights and secular philosophies, Buddhist Modernism aims to create a version of Buddhism that resonates with modern sensibilities while preserving core teachings.
Chanoyu: Chanoyu, often referred to as the Japanese tea ceremony, is a traditional ritual that involves the preparation and serving of matcha, powdered green tea. This practice is deeply rooted in Zen Buddhism and emphasizes aesthetics, harmony, respect, purity, and tranquility, creating a meditative space for participants to appreciate the moment and connect with nature.
Confucianism: Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing moral integrity, social harmony, and respect for authority. This system has significantly influenced Eastern philosophy, particularly in shaping concepts of morality and ethics, as well as impacting religious and symbolic systems in society. Its roots lie deeply in ancient Chinese civilization, affecting governance, family structures, and cultural practices.
Dharma: Dharma is a key concept in Indian philosophy and religions, particularly in Hinduism, that refers to the moral law combined with spiritual discipline that guides one's life. It encompasses duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and the right way of living. Dharma varies according to one's age, caste, gender, and occupation, emphasizing the importance of following one's own path and responsibilities in life.
Emptiness: Emptiness, in philosophical terms, refers to the concept that all phenomena are devoid of intrinsic, independent existence. It emphasizes that things do not possess an inherent essence and are interdependent and conditioned by various factors. This idea is fundamental in certain schools of thought, suggesting that recognizing emptiness leads to a deeper understanding of reality and can alleviate suffering.
Engaged Buddhism: Engaged Buddhism is a movement that seeks to apply Buddhist principles and practices to social, political, and environmental issues. This approach emphasizes social action and activism, aiming to alleviate suffering and promote peace through compassionate engagement in the world. It blends traditional Buddhist teachings with modern-day challenges, addressing issues like poverty, war, and ecological degradation.
Faithfulness: Faithfulness refers to the quality of being loyal, reliable, and steadfast in one's beliefs or relationships. In various philosophical and spiritual contexts, it often embodies a commitment to truth and moral principles, serving as a foundation for ethical behavior and interpersonal connections.
Five Constants: The Five Constants are key principles in Eastern philosophy that define the moral and ethical framework for human relationships and society. These constants emphasize values like benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness, serving as a guide for personal behavior and social interactions. They are foundational in Confucian thought, illustrating how individuals can cultivate their character and contribute to a harmonious society.
Four Noble Truths: The Four Noble Truths are the foundational principles of Buddhism, outlining the nature of suffering and the path to liberation from it. They reveal that suffering is an inherent part of existence, that craving is the cause of suffering, that there is a possibility of ending suffering, and that following the Eightfold Path leads to the cessation of suffering. These truths emphasize the importance of understanding one's suffering in order to achieve enlightenment, connecting deeply with the larger themes of Eastern philosophy regarding the nature of existence and personal transformation.
Gender perspectives: Gender perspectives refer to the ways in which gender identities and roles influence experiences, behaviors, and societal structures. This approach emphasizes understanding how gender shapes social norms, expectations, and power dynamics, highlighting the differences between male and female experiences while also recognizing the fluidity of gender identity.
Holistic thinking: Holistic thinking is an approach that emphasizes the interconnectedness of various elements within a system, advocating for an understanding of the whole rather than just the individual parts. This way of thinking encourages individuals to consider how different components influence and interact with one another, promoting a broader perspective that is often seen in Eastern philosophy. It is about seeing the bigger picture and recognizing patterns and relationships rather than focusing solely on isolated issues.
I Ching: The I Ching, also known as the Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese divination text that serves as a foundational work in Chinese philosophy and culture. It provides guidance through a system of 64 hexagrams, each composed of six broken or unbroken lines, representing different states of change and patterns in life. The I Ching is significant not only for its role in divination but also for its philosophical insights into the nature of existence and the concept of balance and harmony.
Impermanence: Impermanence refers to the fundamental concept that all things are in a constant state of change and that nothing remains the same indefinitely. This idea is central to various philosophies, emphasizing the transient nature of life, emotions, and material possessions, which encourages individuals to cultivate acceptance and mindfulness in the face of change.
India's spiritual traditions: India's spiritual traditions encompass a rich tapestry of beliefs, practices, and philosophies that have evolved over thousands of years, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. These traditions emphasize concepts such as dharma (duty), karma (action and its consequences), and moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth), shaping the spiritual landscape of India and influencing various aspects of life and culture.
Interconnectedness: Interconnectedness refers to the concept that all things are linked together in a web of relationships, influencing and affecting one another in various ways. This idea emphasizes the significance of recognizing that no entity exists in isolation; rather, every aspect of life is part of a larger whole. In various philosophical traditions, particularly within Eastern thought, interconnectedness is often viewed as foundational to understanding existence, ethics, and the cosmos.
Jainism: Jainism is an ancient Indian religion that emphasizes non-violence, truth, and asceticism as a way to achieve spiritual purity and liberation from the cycle of birth and death. This religion teaches that every living being possesses a soul, and by practicing strict ethical principles and self-discipline, one can attain enlightenment and break free from karmic bondage.
Kami: Kami refers to the spirits or deities in Shinto, the traditional religion of Japan. These can include natural elements like mountains, rivers, and trees, as well as ancestors and mythical beings. Kami are believed to be present in all aspects of life and nature, embodying the spiritual essence that connects people with the divine.
Karma: Karma is a fundamental concept that refers to the law of cause and effect, where an individual's actions (good or bad) determine their future experiences. It is closely linked to the beliefs of reincarnation, suggesting that the consequences of one's actions not only influence their current life but also their future lives. This principle emphasizes personal responsibility and the idea that one's moral choices have lasting impacts beyond a single lifetime.
Koan: A koan is a paradoxical statement or question used in Zen Buddhism to provoke deep thought and challenge conventional reasoning. It serves as a tool for meditation, helping practitioners break free from logical thinking and attain enlightenment. By contemplating koans, individuals can gain insights into the nature of reality and the self.
Laozi: Laozi is an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer, traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism, and attributed with the authorship of the 'Tao Te Ching,' a fundamental text in Chinese philosophy. His teachings emphasize living in harmony with the Tao, or 'the Way,' which is the underlying principle of the universe. Laozi's ideas significantly shaped Eastern philosophy and contributed to the development of various schools of thought, influencing the cultural landscape of ancient Chinese civilization.
Martial arts philosophy: Martial arts philosophy refers to the underlying principles and values that guide the practice and understanding of martial arts. It encompasses various ethical, spiritual, and psychological aspects that practitioners embody, promoting discipline, respect, and personal growth. This philosophy is deeply rooted in Eastern philosophical traditions, emphasizing balance, harmony, and self-improvement.
Meditation: Meditation is a practice that involves focusing the mind to achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm state, often used for relaxation, self-reflection, and spiritual growth. It plays a central role in various traditions, particularly in practices aimed at understanding the nature of reality, the self, and the interconnectedness of all things.
Mindfulness: Mindfulness is the practice of being fully present and engaged in the moment, while acknowledging and accepting one's thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations without judgment. This practice is deeply rooted in Eastern philosophy, where it serves as a key component in various meditation techniques, promoting awareness and fostering a greater understanding of oneself and the world.
Moksha: Moksha is a key concept in Hindu philosophy that refers to the liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). Achieving moksha represents the ultimate goal of human existence, where the soul is freed from earthly limitations and reunited with the divine source. This state of liberation is characterized by the cessation of all suffering, desires, and ignorance, leading to eternal peace and bliss.
Moksha: Moksha is the ultimate goal in Hindu philosophy, representing liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). It signifies the soul's release from worldly suffering and the attainment of spiritual enlightenment and unity with the divine. Moksha is closely tied to concepts of karma, dharma, and the nature of existence, making it a central tenet in both Hinduism and broader Eastern philosophical thought.
Mushin: Mushin is a Zen Buddhist concept that translates to 'no mind' or 'empty mind.' It refers to a state of mental clarity and calmness, where one is free from distractions, emotions, and preconceived notions. In this state, individuals can respond to situations spontaneously and intuitively, leading to heightened awareness and optimal performance, especially in martial arts and other disciplines.
Nagarjuna: Nagarjuna was an influential Indian philosopher and the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, who lived around the 2nd century CE. He is best known for his concept of 'emptiness' (śūnyatā) and his work on the philosophy of dependent origination, which argues that all phenomena are interdependent and lack inherent existence. Nagarjuna's teachings have had a profound impact on Eastern philosophy, shaping Buddhist thought and practice across centuries.
Neo-Confucianism: Neo-Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical movement that arose in the Song Dynasty as a response to the challenges posed by Buddhism and Daoism. It integrates traditional Confucian principles with metaphysical elements, emphasizing moral self-cultivation, the importance of societal roles, and the pursuit of knowledge as a means to achieve personal and social harmony.
Neo-confucianism: Neo-Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical movement that emerged during the Song Dynasty in China, combining Confucian thought with elements of Buddhism and Daoism. It sought to address metaphysical questions and moral issues, reinforcing the importance of social harmony and moral integrity in personal conduct and governance.
Nirvana: Nirvana is a central concept in Buddhism, representing the ultimate state of liberation and freedom from suffering, desire, and the cycle of rebirth. It is often described as a state of profound peace, tranquility, and enlightenment, where one transcends the limitations of worldly existence. In broader Eastern philosophy, nirvana symbolizes the attainment of a higher understanding or awakening to the true nature of reality. The term also finds its way into rock and pop music, often used metaphorically to express themes of escapism or a yearning for personal freedom and happiness.
Nirvana: Nirvana is a central concept in Buddhism, representing the ultimate state of liberation and enlightenment, where one is free from suffering, desires, and the cycle of rebirth. It signifies a profound peace and freedom from worldly attachments, serving as the ultimate goal for practitioners on their spiritual journey. This state of being transcends the physical existence and is often seen as the culmination of one's efforts in meditation and moral living.
Non-dualism: Non-dualism is a philosophical and spiritual concept that emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things, suggesting that the apparent dualities of existence—such as self and other, mind and body, or subject and object—are ultimately an illusion. This idea is central to various Eastern philosophical traditions, which encourage the realization of a unified reality beyond the surface distinctions we perceive in everyday life.
Propriety: Propriety refers to the state of conforming to established standards of behavior, manners, and morals that are considered acceptable in a specific cultural or social context. It emphasizes the importance of adhering to social norms and expectations, which can vary greatly across different cultures, particularly in Eastern philosophies where harmony, respect, and hierarchy play significant roles.
Ramanuja: Ramanuja was an influential philosopher and theologian in the 11th century, recognized as one of the most important proponents of the Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) school of Vedanta. His teachings emphasized devotion (bhakti) to a personal god, particularly Lord Vishnu, promoting the idea that individual souls can unite with the divine while maintaining their distinct identities.
Relationality: Relationality refers to the interconnectedness and mutual influence of individuals, societies, and the environment. This concept emphasizes that entities do not exist in isolation but are defined by their relationships with others, shaping identity, knowledge, and experience. In various philosophical frameworks, especially in Eastern thought, relationality underscores the importance of harmony, balance, and the dynamic interplay between self and other.
Righteousness: Righteousness refers to the quality of being morally right or justifiable. In various Eastern philosophies, it is often associated with the idea of living in accordance with ethical principles and the natural order, reflecting a state of balance and harmony within oneself and with others.
Samkhya: Samkhya is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy and is primarily known for its dualistic framework that distinguishes between consciousness (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti). It provides a systematic approach to understanding the nature of reality and the self, presenting a comprehensive enumeration of the principles governing existence, which contributes to the broader philosophical discourse in Hinduism and Eastern thought.
Samsara: Samsara is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth in which all beings are trapped, according to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. It represents the continuous cycle of existence that is driven by karma, the law of cause and effect, where one's actions influence future reincarnations. The ultimate goal in these traditions is to escape samsara and attain a state of liberation or enlightenment.
Shinto: Shinto is a traditional Japanese religion characterized by the worship of kami, which are spirits associated with natural elements, ancestors, and sacred places. This belief system emphasizes harmony with nature, rituals to appease the kami, and the importance of purity and cleanliness. Shinto plays a significant role in Japanese culture, influencing art, festivals, and everyday life.
Siddhartha Gautama: Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, was a spiritual teacher in ancient India who founded Buddhism in the 5th to 4th century BCE. His teachings centered on the path to enlightenment and liberation from suffering, emphasizing concepts like the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which continue to influence millions of followers today.
Tao: Tao refers to the fundamental principle of the universe in Taoism, signifying the natural way or path that everything follows. It represents the source of all things and the ultimate reality that guides existence. In both philosophy and religion, understanding Tao is essential for achieving harmony with nature and one's inner self, influencing various aspects of Eastern thought.
Tao Te Ching: The Tao Te Ching is a foundational text of Daoism, attributed to Laozi, that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, or the fundamental nature of the universe. This ancient Chinese scripture consists of 81 short chapters filled with poetic verses that discuss concepts like simplicity, humility, and the balance of opposites, showcasing a path to personal and societal harmony through understanding the natural order.
Taoism: Taoism is a philosophical and religious tradition originating in ancient China that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao, which is understood as the fundamental principle that is the source of all existence. This tradition incorporates elements of spirituality, ethics, and nature, advocating for simplicity, humility, and compassion as means to align oneself with the Tao. Taoism plays a significant role in Eastern philosophical thought and has influenced various religious and symbolic systems throughout history.
Tea ceremonies: Tea ceremonies are traditional rituals that involve the preparation and consumption of tea, emphasizing aesthetics, mindfulness, and social harmony. These ceremonies reflect deep cultural values, particularly in East Asia, where they are viewed as a form of art that fosters tranquility and connection among participants.
The middle way: The middle way is a fundamental concept in Buddhist philosophy that advocates for a balanced approach to life, avoiding extremes of indulgence and asceticism. It emphasizes moderation and the importance of finding a path that leads to spiritual awakening and enlightenment. This approach not only applies to personal practices but also informs ethical living and the pursuit of wisdom.
Vedanta: Vedanta is a school of Hindu philosophy that emphasizes the ultimate reality of the universe, derived from the Upanishads, which are ancient texts that explore the nature of reality and the self. This philosophy focuses on understanding Brahman, the universal consciousness, and the relationship between the individual soul (Atman) and this ultimate reality. Vedanta teaches that realizing this connection leads to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara).
Vishishtadvaita: Vishishtadvaita is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy in Hinduism, which translates to 'qualified non-dualism.' It emphasizes the idea that while the individual soul (jiva) and the supreme reality (Brahman) are distinct, they are also interconnected and part of a larger whole. This philosophical approach recognizes a personal aspect of the divine, allowing for a relationship between the individual soul and Brahman, offering a path to liberation that includes devotion.
Wisdom: Wisdom is the ability to make sound decisions and judgments based on knowledge, experience, and deep understanding. It often involves a balance of intellect and emotional insight, leading to choices that promote well-being and harmony in oneself and society. In various Eastern philosophical traditions, wisdom is not just about knowledge accumulation but also about the ethical application of that knowledge for the greater good.
Wu wei: Wu wei is a fundamental concept in Taoism that translates to 'non-action' or 'effortless action.' It encourages individuals to align themselves with the natural flow of the universe and to act in accordance with spontaneity and simplicity, rather than forcing outcomes through excessive effort. This idea emphasizes harmony, allowing events to unfold naturally while maintaining a state of awareness and presence.
Yin and Yang: Yin and Yang is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and culture, representing the dual nature of reality and the interconnectedness of opposites. Yin is associated with qualities such as darkness, femininity, and receptivity, while Yang embodies light, masculinity, and activity. This concept illustrates how seemingly opposing forces are interdependent and how they create balance in the universe.
Yin-yang: Yin-yang is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and culture representing the dual nature of reality, where opposite forces are interconnected and interdependent. This symbol illustrates how opposing elements, such as light and dark or male and female, create balance and harmony in the universe. The interplay between yin (the receptive, passive force) and yang (the active, creative force) is essential for understanding the dynamics of life and existence.
Yoga: Yoga is a spiritual and physical practice originating from ancient India that aims to unify the mind, body, and spirit through postures, breath control, meditation, and ethical principles. It encompasses a range of techniques and philosophies designed to promote holistic well-being and self-realization, connecting practitioners with deeper aspects of existence.
Zanshin: Zanshin is a Japanese term that translates to 'remaining mind' and refers to a state of awareness and mental readiness in martial arts and other disciplines. This concept emphasizes being fully present and attentive to one's surroundings while also maintaining a calm and focused mindset. It encapsulates the importance of vigilance, preparation, and adaptability in the face of potential challenges or threats.
Zen Buddhism: Zen Buddhism is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes meditation and direct experience as a way to attain enlightenment. It focuses on the practice of zazen (seated meditation) and the cultivation of mindfulness, encouraging individuals to live in the present moment while also seeking an understanding of the nature of reality. This form of Buddhism has significantly influenced various aspects of Eastern philosophy, especially in how it intertwines with concepts like simplicity, intuition, and the nature of thought.
Zen practice: Zen practice refers to a form of meditation and spiritual discipline rooted in Zen Buddhism, emphasizing direct experience and personal insight as a means to attain enlightenment. It incorporates techniques such as zazen (sitting meditation) and koan study, aiming to cultivate mindfulness, tranquility, and an understanding of one's true nature.
Zhu xi: Zhu Xi was a prominent Chinese philosopher and scholar during the Song Dynasty, known for his contributions to Neo-Confucianism. He synthesized various Confucian ideas and integrated them with Buddhist and Daoist elements, leading to a new understanding of morality, metaphysics, and ethics that influenced Chinese thought for centuries.
© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
Back
Practice QuizGlossary
Practice QuizGlossary
Next guide