Psycholinguistics explores how our brains process and produce language. This field combines insights from psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience to understand the complex mental processes behind communication. From to bilingualism, it sheds light on human cognition and expression.
Research in psycholinguistics covers diverse areas like , reading, and . By studying these topics, we gain valuable insights into how language shapes our thoughts, influences our social interactions, and connects to other cognitive abilities. This knowledge has practical applications in education, technology, and clinical settings.
Origins of psycholinguistics
Explores the intersection of psychology and linguistics to understand language processes in the human mind
Contributes to the humanities by providing insights into human cognition, communication, and cultural expression
Emerged as a distinct field in the mid-20th century, combining methods from psychology, linguistics, and cognitive science
Historical development
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Requires coordination of cognitive, linguistic, and motor skills
Influenced by factors such as working memory capacity and domain knowledge
Differs between novice and expert writers in strategy use and text quality
Pragmatics and discourse
Studies language use in social contexts and extended communication
Contributes to understanding human interaction and cultural communication in the humanities
Investigates how meaning is conveyed beyond literal semantic content
Conversational implicature
Refers to implied meanings that go beyond the literal content of an utterance
Grice's maxims (quantity, quality, relevance, manner) guide cooperative communication
Flouting maxims can create implicatures (sarcasm, irony, indirect requests)
Influenced by cultural norms and shared background knowledge
Discourse analysis
Examines language use in extended texts or conversations
Investigates coherence, cohesion, and information structure in discourse
Analyzes features such as turn-taking, topic management, and repair in conversation
Applies to various domains (political speeches, media discourse, classroom interaction)
Pragmatic development
Involves acquiring ability to use language appropriately in social contexts
Includes understanding of , politeness strategies, and figurative language
Develops throughout childhood and adolescence
Influenced by factors such as theory of mind and executive function skills
Language and technology
Explores the intersection of psycholinguistics and computational approaches
Contributes to developing language technologies that enhance human-computer interaction
Applies psycholinguistic insights to improve language-related technologies
Natural language processing
Involves computational techniques for analyzing and generating human language
Utilizes machine learning algorithms to process large amounts of linguistic data
Applications include machine translation, sentiment analysis, and text summarization
Faces challenges in dealing with ambiguity, context-dependence, and pragmatic aspects of language
Speech recognition systems
Convert spoken language into text or commands
Utilize acoustic models and language models to interpret speech signals
Face challenges with accent variation, background noise, and spontaneous speech
Applications include virtual assistants, transcription services, and accessibility tools
Language learning apps
Utilize principles from second language acquisition research
Incorporate spaced repetition algorithms for vocabulary learning
Provide immediate feedback and personalized learning paths
Face challenges in teaching pragmatic aspects and cultural nuances of language use
Future directions in psycholinguistics
Anticipates upcoming trends and challenges in the field
Reflects on the evolving role of language studies in the broader context of humanities
Considers the impact of technological advancements on language research and use
Emerging research areas
Neurodiversity in language processing and production
Impact of digital communication on language use and cognition
Cross-linguistic studies of under-researched languages and populations
Interaction between language and other cognitive domains (music, mathematics)
Interdisciplinary collaborations
Integration of psycholinguistics with computational cognitive science
Partnerships with educational researchers to improve language teaching methods
Collaboration with clinical psychologists and speech therapists for language interventions
Joint efforts with anthropologists to study language evolution and cultural transmission
Technological advancements
Brain-computer interfaces for language production in paralyzed individuals
Advanced techniques for real-time language processing studies
Virtual and augmented reality applications for language learning and therapy
Artificial intelligence systems capable of more human-like language understanding and generation
Key Terms to Review (71)
Aphasia: Aphasia is a communication disorder that affects a person's ability to process and produce language, often resulting from brain injury, stroke, or neurological conditions. It can impact speaking, understanding, reading, and writing, varying in severity and type depending on the affected brain areas. This condition highlights the relationship between language and brain function, showcasing how disruptions in specific regions can lead to distinct types of language impairments.
Arcuate fasciculus: The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers in the brain that connects two key areas involved in language processing: Broca's area and Wernicke's area. This structure plays a crucial role in enabling the coordination of speech production and comprehension, making it essential for effective communication and language use.
Attention: Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring others. This mental resource allocation is crucial for processing language and communication, allowing individuals to focus on relevant stimuli while filtering out distractions.
Broca's Area: Broca's area is a region in the frontal lobe of the brain, specifically located in the left hemisphere, that is primarily associated with language production and speech processing. This area plays a crucial role in enabling individuals to express themselves verbally, as it is involved in coordinating the movements required for speech and understanding grammatical structures. Damage to Broca's area can lead to Broca's aphasia, which is characterized by difficulty in forming complete sentences and poor speech fluency.
Code-switching: Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects within a conversation or discourse. This phenomenon often occurs among bilingual or multilingual speakers and serves various social functions, including identity expression, group membership signaling, and adapting to different social contexts.
Cognitive effects of bilingualism: The cognitive effects of bilingualism refer to the mental benefits and changes that arise from the ability to use two or more languages. This phenomenon can enhance cognitive flexibility, improve executive function, and boost problem-solving skills, showcasing how multilingual individuals often exhibit different patterns of thinking compared to monolinguals.
Cognitive linguistics: Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary approach to understanding language that emphasizes the relationship between language and the human mind. It focuses on how language reflects and shapes our thoughts, perceptions, and experiences, revealing the cognitive processes underlying our use of language in different contexts. This perspective highlights the importance of semantics and pragmatics in shaping meaning and how our mental representations influence communication.
Cognitive linguistics: Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that examines how language and thought are interconnected, focusing on the ways in which linguistic structures reflect our cognitive processes. This approach emphasizes that language is not just a system of rules and symbols, but also a means through which we understand and conceptualize our experiences. Cognitive linguistics looks at how metaphor, categorization, and perception influence our language use and comprehension.
Conceptual metaphors: Conceptual metaphors are cognitive frameworks that allow individuals to understand and interpret one idea or domain of experience in terms of another. They shape how we think, speak, and perceive the world by mapping characteristics from a source domain to a target domain, influencing language and thought patterns.
Connectionist models: Connectionist models are computational frameworks used to understand how cognitive processes, including language acquisition and understanding, function through networks of simple units or nodes that work together to process information. These models simulate neural networks, reflecting the interconnected nature of neurons in the brain, allowing for learning and memory through the adjustment of connections based on experience.
Conversational Implicature: Conversational implicature refers to the implied meanings that arise from a speaker's utterance in conversation, rather than the literal meaning of the words used. This concept highlights how context, shared knowledge, and social norms influence communication, leading listeners to derive meanings that go beyond what is explicitly stated.
Conversational implicature: Conversational implicature refers to the meaning that is implied in a conversation but not explicitly stated. This concept plays a crucial role in understanding how speakers convey meaning beyond the literal interpretation of their words, relying on context, shared knowledge, and conversational norms. It bridges semantics, which deals with literal meaning, and pragmatics, which focuses on context and usage in communication.
Critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis suggests that there is a specific time frame during which individuals, particularly children, are most capable of acquiring language. This theory indicates that if language exposure does not occur within this critical window, it may be significantly more difficult or even impossible to fully learn a language later in life. This concept is particularly relevant when discussing how language develops in humans and the implications for language learning in various contexts.
Deep dyslexia: Deep dyslexia is a type of reading disorder characterized by the inability to read words accurately and fluently, often accompanied by semantic errors. This condition highlights how complex the relationship between language and cognitive processes is, as individuals with deep dyslexia may struggle with both phonological processing and the visual recognition of words, leading to unique challenges in understanding written text.
Developmental language disorders: Developmental language disorders refer to a range of conditions that affect an individual's ability to acquire and use language effectively, often manifesting in challenges with speaking, understanding, reading, or writing. These disorders can emerge during childhood and may vary in severity, impacting communication skills and academic achievement. Understanding these disorders is crucial for developing effective interventions and supports for those affected.
Discourse analysis: Discourse analysis is the study of how language is used in communication, focusing on the structure and function of spoken or written texts. This approach examines the social context and power dynamics within communication, revealing how language shapes and reflects social realities. It helps to understand how meaning is constructed and conveyed through language, connecting linguistic choices to broader cultural and societal issues.
Dual-route model: The dual-route model is a cognitive framework used to explain how individuals process written language, specifically reading. This model suggests that there are two distinct pathways for reading: the direct route, which recognizes whole words and connects them to their meanings, and the indirect route, which involves decoding words by sounding them out phonetically before deriving their meanings. Understanding this model helps to clarify the complexities of reading comprehension and word recognition.
Dual-route model of reading: The dual-route model of reading is a cognitive framework that explains how individuals process written language through two distinct pathways: the lexical route and the non-lexical route. The lexical route involves recognizing whole words and accessing their meanings from memory, while the non-lexical route focuses on phonological decoding, where readers convert letters into sounds to read unfamiliar words. This model highlights the complexity of reading as it illustrates that readers can employ different strategies depending on their familiarity with the words and the context.
Dyslexia: Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and language processing abilities. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. This condition often coexists with other challenges such as difficulties in phonological processing, which is essential for reading comprehension and writing skills.
Dyslexia and Reading Disorders: Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects a person's ability to read, decode, and comprehend text, despite having normal intelligence and educational opportunities. It is characterized by difficulties in recognizing written words, which can hinder reading fluency and comprehension, impacting academic performance. Reading disorders, which include dyslexia, encompass a broader range of difficulties related to reading, spelling, and writing, often arising from neurobiological differences in processing language.
Electroencephalography (EEG): Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive technique used to record electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. This method allows researchers and clinicians to observe brain wave patterns, which can provide insights into cognitive processes, sleep stages, and various neurological conditions.
Electroencephalography (EEG): Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive neurophysiological monitoring method that records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp. It provides valuable insights into brain function, helping researchers and clinicians understand various cognitive processes, including language acquisition, memory, and attention in the study of how people process and produce language.
Event-related potentials: Event-related potentials (ERPs) are measurable brain responses that are directly the result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. They are recorded through electroencephalography (EEG) and provide insight into the timing and processing of information in the brain, making them crucial for understanding how language is processed and represented in the brain.
Experimental designs: Experimental designs refer to structured approaches used in research to investigate causal relationships by manipulating one or more independent variables and observing the effects on a dependent variable. This method is essential for understanding how language is processed, produced, and understood, allowing researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships in psycholinguistics.
Experimental tasks: Experimental tasks are structured activities or procedures designed to investigate specific cognitive processes, often used in psycholinguistics to study how language is processed and understood. These tasks provide researchers with controlled environments to analyze behaviors and responses related to language comprehension, production, and acquisition.
Eye-movement models: Eye-movement models are theoretical frameworks that describe how and why our eyes move during reading and visual processing. These models help explain the relationship between eye movements, comprehension, and the cognitive processes involved in interpreting text. By analyzing the patterns and durations of eye movements, researchers can gain insights into how people process language and visual information.
Eye-tracking: Eye-tracking is a research technique that measures where and how long a person looks at different stimuli, typically through the use of specialized equipment. This method provides insights into visual attention and cognitive processes by capturing real-time eye movements, allowing researchers to understand how individuals interact with visual information.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a neuroimaging technique that measures and maps brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygenation levels. This method allows researchers to observe brain function in real-time, making it invaluable for understanding the neural processes involved in language, cognition, and other psychological functions.
Interactive-activation model: The interactive-activation model is a cognitive framework used to explain how the brain processes and understands language. It suggests that both top-down and bottom-up processing occur simultaneously when recognizing words, where higher-level knowledge influences lower-level perception and vice versa. This model emphasizes the dynamic interplay between various levels of information processing, which is crucial in understanding language comprehension.
Language acquisition: Language acquisition refers to the process through which individuals, particularly children, learn to understand and use language. This process involves the interaction of cognitive, social, and environmental factors, shaping how a person develops linguistic skills. Understanding language acquisition is crucial for exploring the origins of language and the psychological mechanisms that underpin how we communicate.
Language dominance: Language dominance refers to the situation in which one language is more proficiently used than another by an individual or within a community. This can be influenced by various factors such as cultural exposure, social context, and personal preference, impacting communication and identity.
Language interference: Language interference refers to the influence of a speaker's native language on their use of a second language, leading to errors in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. This phenomenon occurs when elements from the first language are incorrectly applied to the second language, causing misunderstandings or non-native speech patterns. Language interference can be seen in both spoken and written forms and plays a significant role in language acquisition and communication processes.
Lexical decision tasks: Lexical decision tasks are experimental procedures used in psycholinguistics to assess the time it takes individuals to decide whether a given string of letters is a valid word in their language. This method helps researchers explore how language processing works in the brain, including word recognition, semantic access, and the influence of context on understanding language.
Lexical selection: Lexical selection refers to the process of choosing the appropriate words or phrases to convey meaning in language production. This process is vital in psycholinguistics as it involves not only the retrieval of words from memory but also considering contextual factors and the intended message, making it a complex cognitive task that underscores how we communicate effectively.
Linguistic relativity: Linguistic relativity is the idea that the structure and vocabulary of a language influence how its speakers think and perceive the world. This concept suggests that different languages create different ways of understanding reality, impacting cognitive processes, cultural interactions, and social dynamics. The theory emphasizes that language is not just a tool for communication but also shapes thought patterns and worldview.
Magnetoencephalography (meg): Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique that measures the magnetic fields produced by neural activity in the brain. This technology provides high temporal and spatial resolution, allowing researchers to observe brain functions in real time. It is particularly useful in studying cognitive processes, including language, memory, and perception, making it significant in understanding how the brain processes linguistic information.
Mismatch negativity (mmn): Mismatch negativity (mmn) is an event-related potential (ERP) component that reflects the brain's automatic response to changes in auditory stimuli. It is often elicited when a rare or unexpected sound occurs within a sequence of repeated sounds, indicating the brain's ability to detect deviations from an established auditory pattern. This phenomenon is crucial for understanding cognitive processes related to perception, attention, and language comprehension.
N400 component: The n400 component is an event-related potential (ERP) that is observed in brain activity and is associated with the processing of semantic information and the integration of meaning during language comprehension. It typically occurs approximately 400 milliseconds after the presentation of a stimulus, such as a word or sentence, that evokes a semantic expectation violation, indicating how our brains react when encountering unexpected or incongruous information in language.
N400 Component: The N400 component is an event-related potential (ERP) that reflects the brain's response to semantic anomalies in language processing. It typically occurs approximately 400 milliseconds after a stimulus, such as a word or sentence, that violates expectations based on context. This component is closely linked to how we understand meaning and context in language, making it a key area of study in psycholinguistics.
Nativist theory: Nativist theory posits that humans are born with an inherent ability to acquire language, suggesting that the capacity for language is a natural part of human development. This theory emphasizes that certain linguistic structures are hardwired into the brain, allowing children to learn language rapidly and efficiently, regardless of their environment. Nativist proponents argue that this built-in knowledge is critical for understanding how language is developed and used.
Natural language processing: Natural language processing (NLP) is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on the interaction between computers and humans through natural language. It combines computational linguistics, computer science, and cognitive psychology to enable machines to understand, interpret, and respond to human language in a valuable way. This technology plays a significant role in various applications, such as chatbots, translation services, and sentiment analysis, affecting how we engage with digital media and understand human cognition.
Neuroimaging: Neuroimaging is a set of techniques used to visualize the structure and function of the brain and nervous system. This field combines advanced imaging technologies to create detailed images that help researchers and clinicians understand brain activity, structure, and connectivity, which are crucial for studying language processing and cognitive functions.
Noam Chomsky: Noam Chomsky is a renowned linguist, cognitive scientist, and philosopher known for his groundbreaking work in the study of language and its structures. He revolutionized linguistics by introducing the theory of generative grammar, which emphasizes the innate biological capacity for language acquisition, linking it to broader discussions on syntax, morphology, and psycholinguistics. Chomsky's ideas have also influenced the understanding of language families and the origins of language, asserting that all human languages share a common underlying structure.
P600 component: The p600 component is an event-related potential (ERP) identified in electroencephalography (EEG) studies, characterized by a positive deflection occurring approximately 600 milliseconds after the presentation of a stimulus. This neural marker is associated with the processing of syntactic and semantic anomalies during language comprehension, highlighting its role in psycholinguistics and how we understand language structures.
Phonetics: Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of human speech, focusing on how these sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It connects closely with other linguistic disciplines, such as phonology, which examines how sounds function within particular languages. Understanding phonetics is crucial for exploring the origins of language, the classification of language families, the development of writing systems, and even the psychological processes involved in language acquisition and use.
Phonological deficit hypothesis: The phonological deficit hypothesis suggests that difficulties in processing phonological information are a core issue in language development, particularly in reading disorders such as dyslexia. This hypothesis connects phonology, which is the study of sounds in language, to the broader challenges faced by individuals when acquiring literacy skills and comprehending spoken and written language.
Phonological Deficit Hypothesis: The phonological deficit hypothesis suggests that difficulties in processing phonological information can lead to challenges in reading and language acquisition. This theory posits that individuals, particularly children with dyslexia, may struggle with the sounds of language, affecting their ability to decode words and impacting their overall literacy skills.
Picture naming tasks: Picture naming tasks are experimental techniques used in psycholinguistics to study how individuals access and produce words associated with visual stimuli. These tasks typically involve showing participants images and asking them to name the object depicted, which helps researchers understand the cognitive processes involved in language production, word retrieval, and the relationship between visual perception and verbal expression.
Picture Naming Tasks: Picture naming tasks are assessments used in psycholinguistics to measure a person's ability to retrieve and produce the correct name for a visual stimulus, such as an object or scene. These tasks help researchers understand how language production is linked to visual perception and cognitive processing, revealing insights into the mechanisms of language and memory.
Positron emission tomography (PET): Positron emission tomography (PET) is a medical imaging technique that uses radioactive substances to visualize and measure metabolic processes in the body. It allows for the observation of how tissues and organs function, which is particularly useful in diagnosing conditions such as cancer and neurological disorders.
Pragmatic development: Pragmatic development refers to the process by which individuals acquire the ability to use language effectively in social contexts. This involves understanding how to communicate appropriately based on context, recognizing social cues, and adjusting language to fit different situations. It plays a crucial role in effective communication, allowing individuals to convey intentions, request information, and engage in conversations that reflect their social understanding.
Pragmatics: Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication. It explores how speakers and listeners use language in practical situations, taking into account factors such as social cues, cultural norms, and the intentions behind utterances. This area of study is essential for understanding not just what words mean, but how those meanings can change based on context.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis posits that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers perceive and think about the world. This idea emphasizes that language is not just a means of communication but also shapes cognitive processes, suggesting that different languages can lead to different ways of understanding and interpreting experiences.
Self-paced reading paradigms: Self-paced reading paradigms are experimental methods used in psycholinguistics to study how individuals read and process language by allowing them to control the speed at which they read text. These paradigms often involve presenting sentences or passages one word at a time or in segments, enabling researchers to measure eye movements, response times, and comprehension as readers navigate through the material. This approach provides insights into cognitive processes involved in language comprehension and the mechanisms underlying reading.
Semantics: Semantics is the study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning. It connects to the understanding of how language represents concepts and relationships, exploring both the literal meanings of expressions and their contextual interpretations. This field also examines how meaning is constructed and understood within communication, playing a vital role in linguistics and cognitive processes.
Sentence completion tasks: Sentence completion tasks are psychological assessments that require individuals to finish a sentence with their own words. These tasks are often used in research and clinical settings to explore cognitive processes, language understanding, and individual differences in thought patterns.
Sentence comprehension: Sentence comprehension refers to the cognitive process through which individuals interpret and understand the meaning of sentences. This involves several key components, such as parsing grammatical structure, integrating new information with prior knowledge, and making inferences based on context. The ability to comprehend sentences is crucial for effective communication and involves both linguistic and cognitive skills.
Social interactionist theory: Social interactionist theory is a perspective in linguistics and psychology that emphasizes the role of social interaction in the development of language and communication. It posits that language acquisition occurs through dynamic exchanges between individuals, where meaning is created and negotiated in social contexts, highlighting the importance of cultural and environmental influences on language learning.
Speech acts: Speech acts are communicative actions performed through speaking or writing, where the utterance itself can have meaning beyond the words used. They involve a speaker's intention and the effect that utterance has on the listener, often categorized into types like assertions, questions, commands, and promises, each serving different social functions.
Speech perception: Speech perception is the process by which the brain interprets and understands spoken language. This involves recognizing phonemes, syllables, and words, allowing individuals to comprehend spoken sentences and communicate effectively. It plays a crucial role in language acquisition, comprehension, and overall communication skills.
Speech planning: Speech planning refers to the cognitive process involved in organizing thoughts and ideas before verbal expression. This process includes the formulation of a message, choosing appropriate words, and structuring sentences to convey meaning effectively, all of which are essential components in psycholinguistics as they relate to how individuals understand and produce language.
Speech recognition systems: Speech recognition systems are technologies that can identify and process human speech into a format that computers can understand and respond to. These systems use algorithms and artificial intelligence to convert spoken language into text, allowing for various applications like voice commands, transcription, and automated customer service.
Steven Pinker: Steven Pinker is a prominent cognitive psychologist, linguist, and author known for his work on language, the mind, and human nature. His contributions to psycholinguistics, particularly in understanding how language is processed and acquired, have made him a significant figure in the field of psychology and cognitive science.
Surface dyslexia: Surface dyslexia is a specific reading disorder where individuals struggle to recognize words by sight and often rely on phonetic decoding instead. This condition indicates difficulties with accessing the mental lexicon, leading to challenges in understanding irregular words that do not follow typical phonetic patterns. Surface dyslexia illustrates the complexities of reading processes and highlights the distinction between different types of dyslexia.
Syntactic Encoding: Syntactic encoding is the process through which individuals generate the grammatical structure of sentences while producing language. This involves organizing words according to the rules of syntax, which dictates how different parts of speech can combine to create meaningful phrases and sentences. The ability to encode syntax is crucial for effective communication, as it ensures that speakers convey their intended meanings clearly and correctly.
Syntactic encoding: Syntactic encoding is the process by which individuals organize and structure linguistic information into coherent sentences during language production. This involves selecting appropriate grammatical rules, word order, and the relationships between words to convey meaning effectively. It plays a crucial role in both spoken and written communication, influencing how ideas are expressed and understood.
Syntax: Syntax refers to the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a language. It involves how words and phrases are arranged to create meaningful sentences, impacting clarity and comprehension. This concept is crucial for understanding how language functions, as it connects grammar with meaning and influences communication effectiveness.
Syntax: Syntax refers to the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a language. It is concerned with how words combine to form phrases, clauses, and complete sentences, influencing meaning and clarity. Understanding syntax is essential for exploring how language originated, how different language families develop distinct structures, and how individuals process language psychologically.
Wernicke's Area: Wernicke's area is a region in the brain, located in the left temporal lobe, that is primarily responsible for language comprehension. This area plays a crucial role in processing spoken and written language, allowing individuals to understand and produce meaningful communication. Damage to Wernicke's area can lead to Wernicke's aphasia, a condition where a person can speak fluently but struggles to understand language or make sense in their speech.
Word recognition: Word recognition is the ability to identify and comprehend written words quickly and accurately. This skill is crucial for reading fluency, as it allows readers to decode text efficiently and focus on understanding the meaning of what they are reading rather than struggling with each individual word.
Working memory: Working memory is a cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information necessary for complex tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. It is essential for integrating new information with existing knowledge, allowing individuals to perform mental operations in real-time. The limited capacity of working memory means it can only hold a small amount of information at any given time, which is crucial for tasks like language processing and problem-solving.