🏔️Intro to Geotechnical Science Unit 9 – Slope Stability

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Slope stability assesses the resistance of an inclined surface to failure by sliding or collapsing
• Factor of Safety (FoS) represents the ratio of resisting forces to driving forces acting on a slope
  • FoS > 1 indicates a stable slope
  • FoS < 1 suggests an unstable slope prone to failure
• Shear strength is the maximum resistance of soil to shearing stresses before failure occurs
• Cohesion refers to the internal bonding of soil particles that contributes to its shear strength
• Angle of internal friction ($\phi$) represents the frictional resistance between soil particles
• Pore water pressure is the pressure exerted by water within the soil voids
• Effective stress ($\sigma'$) is the total stress minus pore water pressure and governs soil behavior

Factors Affecting Slope Stability

• Geometry of the slope including height, angle, and shape influences its stability
  • Steeper slopes are generally less stable due to increased driving forces
• Soil properties such as shear strength, cohesion, and internal friction angle affect slope stability
• Groundwater conditions and pore water pressure can significantly reduce effective stress and stability
  • High groundwater levels or water infiltration increase pore water pressure and decrease shear strength
• Surcharge loads from structures, equipment, or vegetation on the slope add to driving forces
• Erosion by surface runoff or seepage can undermine the toe of the slope and reduce stability
• Seismic activity and earthquakes can trigger slope failures by inducing dynamic loads
• Weathering processes (physical, chemical) gradually degrade soil properties and weaken slopes

Types of Slope Failures

• Rotational slides involve a curved failure surface and rotation of the soil mass
  • Often occur in homogeneous, cohesive soils (clays)
• Translational slides have a planar failure surface and the soil mass moves along it
  • Common in slopes with distinct weak layers or interfaces
• Wedge failures occur when two intersecting discontinuities form a wedge-shaped block
• Toppling failures involve the forward rotation of blocks or columns of soil about a pivot point
• Flows are rapid movements of soil, often triggered by heavy rainfall or seismic events
  • Debris flows and mudflows are examples of flow-type failures
• Complex slope failures combine multiple failure mechanisms (rotational-translational)
• Creep is the slow, gradual downslope movement of soil particles over time

Soil Properties and Their Impact

• Shear strength parameters (cohesion, internal friction angle) directly influence slope stability
  • Higher values of cohesion and friction angle contribute to greater slope stability
• Soil classification (clay, silt, sand, gravel) affects the behavior and stability of slopes
  • Cohesive soils (clays) are more prone to rotational failures
  • Granular soils (sands, gravels) are susceptible to translational and flow-type failures
• Soil unit weight ($\gamma$) determines the gravitational driving forces acting on the slope
• Permeability and hydraulic conductivity control the flow of water through the soil
  • Low permeability soils (clays) can lead to buildup of pore water pressure
• Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit) indicate the consistency and behavior of fine-grained soils
• Soil structure, fabric, and anisotropy can create preferential failure planes or weak zones

Analysis Methods and Calculations

• Limit Equilibrium Methods (LEM) analyze slope stability by comparing resisting and driving forces
  • Examples include the Ordinary Method of Slices, Bishop's Simplified Method, and Spencer's Method
• Finite Element Methods (FEM) provide a more detailed analysis of stress and strain distributions
  • Require advanced computational tools and soil constitutive models
• Slope stability calculations involve determining the Factor of Safety (FoS) for potential failure surfaces
• The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is commonly used to assess soil shear strength
  • Shear strength ($\tau$) = $c$ + $\sigma'$ tan($\phi$), where $c$ is cohesion and $\sigma'$ is effective normal stress
• Pore water pressure calculations are essential for evaluating effective stress and slope stability
• Seismic slope stability analysis incorporates the effects of earthquake-induced ground motions
• Probabilistic methods consider uncertainties in soil properties and loading conditions

Slope Stability Assessment Techniques

• Site investigation and field observations provide valuable information about slope conditions
  • Geologic mapping, surface features, and signs of instability (cracks, bulges, seepage)
• Subsurface exploration techniques (boreholes, test pits) help characterize soil stratigraphy and properties
• In-situ tests (Standard Penetration Test, Cone Penetration Test) evaluate soil strength and stiffness
• Laboratory tests on soil samples determine shear strength parameters and classify soils
  • Direct shear test, triaxial shear test, and ring shear test are common laboratory methods
• Instrumentation and monitoring systems track slope movements and pore water pressures over time
  • Inclinometers, piezometers, and survey markers are examples of monitoring devices
• Remote sensing techniques (LiDAR, satellite imagery) aid in mapping and identifying slope instabilities
• Geophysical methods (seismic refraction, electrical resistivity) provide subsurface information

Mitigation and Stabilization Strategies

• Slope geometry modification involves reducing the slope angle or height to improve stability
  • Grading, benching, and terracing are common techniques
• Drainage measures aim to lower groundwater levels and reduce pore water pressures
  • Surface drainage (ditches, channels) and subsurface drainage (horizontal drains, wells) are used
• Retaining structures (walls, buttresses) provide external support and increase resisting forces
  • Gravity walls, cantilever walls, and anchored walls are examples of retaining structures
• Soil reinforcement techniques introduce tensile elements to enhance the soil's shear strength
  • Geotextiles, geogrids, and soil nails are commonly used reinforcement methods
• Vegetation and bioengineering stabilize slopes through root reinforcement and erosion control
  • Planting trees, shrubs, and grasses helps bind the soil and reduce surface erosion
• Ground improvement techniques (compaction, grouting) improve soil properties and increase stability
• Monitoring and early warning systems help detect slope movements and enable timely interventions

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• Landslide hazard assessment and risk management in mountainous regions (Himalayas, Andes)
• Slope stability issues in open-pit mining operations and mine waste dumps
• Highway and railway embankment stability, particularly in hilly terrains
• Coastal bluff and cliff stability affected by erosion and sea-level rise (California coast)
• Stability of earth dams and levees, critical for flood control and water resource management
• Landslide mitigation measures implemented in urban areas prone to slope failures (Rio de Janeiro)
• Stabilization of slopes along waterways and canals to ensure navigational safety
• Forensic analysis of major landslide events to understand failure mechanisms and improve prevention (Oso landslide, Washington)