14.3 Global gender issues: labor, migration, and human rights
3 min read•july 22, 2024
Global migration patterns are changing, with women now making up nearly half of all international migrants. This shift impacts families, communities, and gender roles worldwide. However, female migrants often face exploitation, abuse, and limited access to essential services.
Women and LGBTQ+ individuals continue to face discrimination and human rights violations globally. These include unequal access to education and healthcare, violence, and political underrepresentation. International laws and treaties aim to address these issues, but implementation remains challenging.
Global Migration Patterns and Impacts
Gendered patterns of global migration
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- involves an increasing proportion of women migrating independently for work, with women now constituting nearly half of all international migrants
- Factors driving female migration include economic opportunities and gender wage gaps, family reunification, and escaping or discrimination (domestic abuse, )
- Impact on families and communities leads to changes in gender roles and family dynamics, increased responsibilities for women left behind, economic benefits through remittances, and social costs such as emotional strain and family separation
- Female migrants face vulnerability to exploitation, abuse, and , and limited legal protections, and difficulty accessing healthcare and social services (, mental health support)
Gender, Labor, and Human Rights
Human rights for women and LGBTQ+
- Women and LGBTQ+ individuals face discrimination and violence, including unequal access to education, employment, and healthcare, (rape, domestic abuse), forced marriage, and
- Criminalization of LGBTQ+ identities leads to imprisonment, torture, and execution, lack of legal recognition and protection, and social stigma and exclusion
- Barriers to political participation include underrepresentation in decision-making positions and suppression of women's and LGBTQ+ rights movements (protests, advocacy organizations)
- results in compounded marginalization based on race, class, and other factors (indigenous women, transgender people of color)
Exploitation of women's labor globally
- results in women being overrepresented in low-wage, low-skill jobs with limited access to education and training opportunities (, )
- involve inadequate health and safety standards, long working hours and low wages, and lack of social protection and benefits (maternity leave, sick pay)
- Women are concentrated in the , including unregulated sectors such as domestic work and street vending, which lack legal recognition and and leave them vulnerable to exploitation and abuse
- Women's labor in global supply chains, particularly in export-oriented industries such as garments and electronics, faces pressure to keep labor costs low, leading to poor working conditions and limited bargaining power and union representation
International law for gender equality
- International human rights treaties, such as the ###Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_Against_Women_()0###, ###International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights()_0###, and ###International_Covenant_on_Economic,Social_and_Cultural_Rights()_0###, provide a framework for addressing gender-based violence and discrimination
- Regional human rights instruments, including the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women () and the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (), further reinforce gender equality
- United Nations mechanisms, such as the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, Commission on the Status of Women, and , work to promote gender equality and address gender-based violence
- Challenges in implementation include limited ratification and enforcement of treaties, lack of political will and resources, and cultural and social barriers to gender equality (patriarchal norms, religious traditions)
Key Terms to Review (32)
Belém do Pará Convention: The Belém do Pará Convention is a significant international treaty aimed at addressing violence against women in Latin America and the Caribbean. Adopted in 1994, it emphasizes the need for states to take action against gender-based violence and promote women's rights, linking these issues to broader human rights principles. This convention highlights the importance of legal frameworks and social protections in addressing the pervasive nature of violence against women, thereby directly connecting to labor, migration, and human rights discussions.
Bell hooks: bell hooks is a prominent cultural critic, feminist theorist, and author known for her influential work on race, gender, and class. She has significantly shaped contemporary feminist thought by emphasizing the importance of intersectionality, challenging traditional views of feminism, and advocating for social justice.
CEDAW: The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted by the United Nations in 1979, aimed at promoting women's rights and achieving gender equality. CEDAW serves as a comprehensive framework for governments to work towards eliminating discrimination against women in all areas of life, including labor, education, and healthcare, while also addressing issues related to migration and human rights.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): CEDAW is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations, aimed at eliminating discrimination against women in all forms and promoting gender equality. It sets out a comprehensive framework for countries to ensure women's rights, covering areas such as education, employment, health care, and political participation. CEDAW plays a crucial role in addressing global gender issues like labor rights, migration challenges, and human rights violations faced by women.
Domestic work: Domestic work refers to a range of tasks performed within households, including cleaning, cooking, caregiving, and other responsibilities that maintain the home environment. This type of labor is often undervalued and predominantly carried out by women, reflecting broader issues related to labor, migration, and human rights, as well as the intersections of gender with race and ethnicity in various social contexts.
Female genital mutilation: Female genital mutilation (FGM) refers to the partial or total removal of external female genitalia for non-medical reasons, often rooted in cultural, religious, or social beliefs. This practice can have serious physical and psychological consequences for women and girls, and it is considered a violation of human rights. FGM is intertwined with broader issues of gender inequality, health risks, and the rights of women, highlighting its significance in discussions about labor, migration, and human rights as well as gender-based violence.
Feminization of migration: The feminization of migration refers to the increasing participation of women in migration flows, often driven by economic necessity, family reunification, and labor demands in both sending and receiving countries. This trend highlights the significant role women play in global labor markets, particularly in sectors like domestic work, healthcare, and agriculture, while also raising issues related to human rights, labor exploitation, and gender equality.
Forced marriage: Forced marriage is a union in which one or both parties are married without their consent, often under coercion or pressure from family or community members. This practice is deeply rooted in cultural, social, and economic factors, and is a significant violation of human rights, reflecting broader issues related to gender inequality and violence against women.
Garment industry: The garment industry refers to the sector of the economy involved in the design, production, and distribution of clothing. This industry plays a significant role in global trade and labor dynamics, often intersecting with issues of gender, migration, and human rights, particularly as it relies heavily on female labor in many developing countries where working conditions can be harsh.
Gender equity: Gender equity refers to the fair treatment and opportunities for individuals of all genders, ensuring that they have equal rights and access to resources, benefits, and decision-making processes. It goes beyond mere equality by addressing the unique needs and circumstances of different genders, recognizing that historical and social contexts can create disparities. Gender equity is vital in addressing global issues related to labor, migration, and human rights, as it aims to eliminate barriers that prevent individuals from fully participating in society.
Gender inequality: Gender inequality refers to the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender, often resulting in disparities in rights, responsibilities, and opportunities. This inequality is shaped by historical contexts, cultural norms, and social structures that prioritize one gender over another, typically disadvantaging women and non-binary individuals while privileging men.
Gender norms: Gender norms are the societal expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female, shaped by cultural, historical, and social contexts. These norms dictate what is considered appropriate behavior, interests, and roles for each gender, influencing individuals from a young age and impacting their interactions and identities throughout life.
Gender wage gap: The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings between women and men in the workforce, often expressed as a percentage of men's earnings. This gap can be influenced by various factors including occupational segregation, discrimination, and differences in work experience or education. Understanding the gender wage gap is essential for examining how class and socioeconomic status interact with gender roles and how global issues such as labor rights and migration impact economic opportunities for different genders.
Gender-based violence: Gender-based violence refers to harmful acts directed at individuals based on their gender, often rooted in gender inequality and discrimination. This form of violence can manifest in various ways, including physical, sexual, emotional, and economic abuse, and is a global issue that intersects with labor rights, migration challenges, and human rights violations.
Gendered division of labor: The gendered division of labor refers to the way in which work tasks and roles are distributed based on gender, often leading to distinct expectations for men and women in both domestic and professional settings. This division can be seen in various aspects of society, where traditionally, men are associated with paid work outside the home, while women are often relegated to unpaid domestic work or roles that are stereotypically viewed as 'feminine.'
Grassroots movements: Grassroots movements are collective efforts initiated by local communities to address social issues and advocate for change, often driven by the people directly affected by those issues. These movements rely on the participation and mobilization of ordinary individuals rather than established institutions, making them potent vehicles for social change, particularly in the realms of labor rights, migration policies, and human rights advocacy.
Human trafficking: Human trafficking is the illegal trade of people for exploitation, often involving coercion, fraud, or force. This complex issue is deeply intertwined with globalization, as economic disparities and migration patterns contribute to vulnerable populations becoming targets for traffickers, while also intersecting with labor rights, human rights abuses, and various forms of gender-based violence.
ICCPR: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a key treaty that aims to ensure the protection of civil and political rights globally. It obliges signatory countries to respect and ensure a range of fundamental rights, including the right to life, freedom of speech, and equality before the law. The ICCPR is crucial in addressing global gender issues, particularly by establishing legal frameworks that protect women’s rights in labor, migration, and human rights contexts.
ICESCR: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a key human rights treaty that commits its parties to work toward granting economic, social, and cultural rights to individuals. This covenant focuses on the right to work, education, health, and an adequate standard of living, highlighting the importance of these rights in promoting equality and addressing issues like gender inequality in labor and migration contexts.
Informal economy: The informal economy refers to economic activities that are not regulated by the government or covered by formal labor laws. This sector includes a wide range of jobs and businesses that are typically unregistered and often lack access to social protections and benefits. The informal economy plays a significant role in shaping gender roles, as women often dominate this sector due to limited access to formal employment opportunities.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR): The ICCPR is a multilateral treaty that aims to protect the civil and political rights of individuals. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1966 and entered into force in 1976. The ICCPR provides a framework for ensuring fundamental rights, including the right to life, freedom of speech, and the right to a fair trial, which are essential for promoting justice and equality globally, particularly in the context of labor, migration, and human rights.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR): The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a key international treaty that aims to protect and promote human rights related to economic, social, and cultural aspects of life. It recognizes rights such as the right to work, education, health, and an adequate standard of living, emphasizing the importance of these rights in ensuring dignity and equality for all individuals. By addressing these rights on a global scale, the ICESCR connects deeply with issues of labor, migration, and human rights, as it obligates states to respect, protect, and fulfill these rights for their populations.
Intersectional discrimination: Intersectional discrimination refers to the overlapping and interconnected nature of social categorizations, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, which create unique systems of oppression and privilege. This concept emphasizes that individuals can experience multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously, resulting in complex social dynamics that must be understood in a holistic manner, especially when examining issues like labor rights, migration challenges, and human rights violations across different contexts.
Judith Butler: Judith Butler is a prominent American philosopher and gender theorist known for her influential work on gender, sexuality, and the performative nature of identity. Her ideas challenge traditional notions of gender as fixed and instead propose that gender is socially constructed and enacted through repeated behaviors and performances.
Labor rights: Labor rights refer to the legal and human rights related to the working conditions, treatment, and entitlements of workers. These rights are essential for ensuring fair wages, safe working environments, and the ability to organize and collectively bargain. In a global context, labor rights intersect with issues of migration and human rights, especially for marginalized groups who may face exploitation and discrimination in the workforce.
Maputo Protocol: The Maputo Protocol, officially known as the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, is a regional legal framework adopted in 2003 that aims to promote and protect women's rights across Africa. This protocol addresses key issues such as gender-based violence, discrimination, and women's access to education and healthcare, linking these rights to broader global gender issues related to labor, migration, and human rights.
Patriarchy: Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power, dominating in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. This system shapes gender norms and expectations, influencing various cultural practices, historical contexts, and feminist theories while perpetuating gender inequality.
Precarious working conditions: Precarious working conditions refer to employment situations that are unstable, insecure, and often characterized by low wages, lack of benefits, and limited job security. These conditions disproportionately affect marginalized groups, including women and migrant workers, who are often forced to take on low-paying jobs in informal sectors or exploitative labor environments. The impacts of these conditions extend beyond economic hardship, affecting individuals' health, safety, and overall quality of life.
Precarious working conditions: Precarious working conditions refer to employment situations that are uncertain, unstable, and insecure, often lacking benefits and protections associated with traditional full-time jobs. These conditions are characterized by low wages, job insecurity, and limited access to social protections, which disproportionately affect marginalized groups, especially women, in a globalized economy. The rise of such work is linked to broader economic trends like globalization and the increasing gig economy, impacting gender relations and highlighting global labor issues.
Reproductive healthcare: Reproductive healthcare refers to the range of services and information that support individuals in managing their reproductive health, including family planning, contraception, prenatal care, and sexually transmitted infection (STI) treatment. It encompasses both physical and mental health aspects related to reproduction, empowering individuals to make informed decisions about their bodies and reproductive lives. Access to comprehensive reproductive healthcare is crucial for addressing broader issues of gender equality, human rights, and social justice.
Sexual and gender-based violence: Sexual and gender-based violence refers to harmful acts directed at individuals based on their gender or sexuality, which can occur in various forms, including physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. This type of violence is rooted in gender inequality and is prevalent in many societies, often exacerbated by factors such as labor migration and human rights violations. Understanding this concept is essential to address the broader implications it has on global gender issues.
UN Women: UN Women is the United Nations entity dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women, established in 2010. It aims to support international efforts to promote women's rights, ensure their full participation in all aspects of society, and address issues such as violence against women and economic inequality. UN Women plays a crucial role in advancing global gender issues, particularly through labor, migration, and human rights initiatives.