11.1 Theories of Persuasion
6 min read•july 30, 2024
Theories of persuasion help us understand how people are influenced. The (ELM) is a key theory that explains two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral. It's all about how much we think about a message.
The ELM shows that our and information affect how we're persuaded. When we're engaged, we use the , carefully considering arguments. When we're less involved, we rely on simple cues through the .
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Key Components and Assumptions
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- The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is a dual-process theory of persuasion that posits two distinct routes to attitude change: the central route and the peripheral route
- The ELM assumes that the extent to which individuals engage in thoughtful, effortful processing of persuasive messages (elaboration) varies along a continuum from low to high
- The likelihood of elaboration is determined by an individual's motivation and ability to process the message
- Motivation to process the message is influenced by factors such as , , and accountability
- Ability to process the message is affected by factors such as , , and
Routes to Persuasion
- When elaboration likelihood is high, persuasion is more likely to occur via the central route, which involves careful scrutiny of message arguments and extensive cognitive processing
- When elaboration likelihood is low, persuasion is more likely to occur via the peripheral route, which involves reliance on simple cues and heuristics rather than careful evaluation of message content
- The ELM posits that attitude changes resulting from the central route are more enduring, resistant to counterpersuasion, and predictive of behavior than those resulting from the peripheral route
Central vs Peripheral Routes
Central Route
- The central route to persuasion involves extensive cognitive processing and careful evaluation of the arguments presented in a persuasive message
- When the central route is taken, individuals scrutinize the quality and strength of the arguments, engage in issue-relevant thinking, and form their attitudes based on the merits of the message
- Factors that increase the likelihood of central route processing include high personal relevance of the topic, high need for cognition, and the presence of strong, compelling arguments
- Examples of central route persuasion include a political speech that presents detailed policy proposals or a message that provides comprehensive information about the risks and benefits of a medical treatment
Peripheral Route
- The peripheral route to persuasion involves less cognitive effort and relies on simple cues and heuristics rather than careful evaluation of message content
- When the peripheral route is taken, individuals form their attitudes based on superficial cues such as source attractiveness, , emotional appeals, or the number of arguments presented, without carefully considering the quality of the arguments
- Factors that increase the likelihood of peripheral route processing include low personal relevance of the topic, low need for cognition, time pressure, and the presence of distracting stimuli
- Examples of peripheral route persuasion include an advertisement that features a celebrity endorser or a political campaign ad that uses catchy slogans and appealing visuals
Factors Influencing Route Selection
- The route taken depends on the individual's motivation and ability to process the message, which can be influenced by situational and individual difference variables
- The ELM suggests that when motivation and ability to process are high, the central route is more likely to be taken, whereas when motivation and ability are low, the peripheral route is more likely to be taken
- Situational factors that can affect route selection include time pressure, distractions, and the complexity of the message
- Individual difference variables that can influence route selection include need for cognition, prior knowledge, and personal relevance of the topic
ELM vs Other Theories
Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM)
- The (HSM) is similar to the ELM in that it proposes two modes of information processing: systematic processing (analogous to the central route) and heuristic processing (analogous to the peripheral route)
- However, the HSM posits that both modes of processing can co-occur and that heuristic processing can bias systematic processing, whereas the ELM suggests that the two routes are mutually exclusive
- The HSM also emphasizes the role of accuracy motivation in determining the depth of information processing, whereas the ELM focuses more on the role of ability and motivation in general
Social Judgment Theory (SJT)
- (SJT) focuses on how individuals judge the position advocated in a persuasive message in relation to their own attitudes
- SJT proposes that a message falling within an individual's is more likely to be persuasive, whereas a message falling within the is more likely to be resisted
- Unlike the ELM, SJT does not explicitly address the role of cognitive processing in persuasion and instead emphasizes the importance of attitudinal factors in determining persuasion outcomes
Comparison with ELM
- The ELM is a more comprehensive theory that accounts for both message-related and recipient-related factors in persuasion, whereas SJT primarily focuses on the role of an individual's prior attitudes in the persuasion process
- Both the ELM and the HSM emphasize the importance of motivation and ability in determining the depth of information processing, whereas SJT places greater emphasis on the role of attitudinal factors in persuasion
- The ELM provides a more nuanced framework for understanding the different routes to persuasion and the factors that influence which route is taken, compared to the other theories
Analyzing Persuasion with ELM
Political Campaigns
- Political campaigns often use a mix of central and peripheral route strategies to persuade voters
- Campaign speeches and debates that present detailed policy proposals and arguments are designed to appeal to voters who are motivated and able to engage in central route processing
- Campaign ads that feature attractive or famous endorsers, emotional appeals, or catchy slogans are designed to appeal to voters who are more likely to engage in peripheral route processing
- By targeting different voter segments with tailored persuasive messages, political campaigns can maximize their persuasive impact and appeal to a broader range of voters
Health Communication
- Health communication messages, such as anti-smoking campaigns, can also be analyzed using the ELM framework
- Messages that provide detailed information about the health risks of smoking and the benefits of quitting are more likely to be effective for individuals who are motivated and able to process the information carefully (central route)
- Messages that use graphic images, fear appeals, or celebrity endorsements may be more effective for individuals who are less motivated or able to process the information (peripheral route)
- Health communicators can use the ELM to design messages that are tailored to the processing styles and motivations of different target audiences, increasing the likelihood of successful behavior change
Advertising
- often relies heavily on peripheral route strategies to persuade consumers
- Ads that feature attractive models, catchy jingles, or appealing packaging are designed to influence attitudes through peripheral cues rather than careful evaluation of product attributes
- However, for high-involvement products or services, such as cars or financial investments, ads that provide detailed information and arguments may be more effective for consumers who are motivated to engage in central route processing
- Advertisers can use the ELM to create persuasive messages that are appropriate for the level of involvement and motivation of their target audience, increasing the effectiveness of their campaigns
Research and Practice
- By analyzing real-world persuasive messages through the lens of the ELM, researchers and practitioners can gain insights into the strategies that are most likely to be effective for different target audiences and contexts
- The ELM provides a framework for understanding how and why certain persuasive messages are more effective than others, allowing communicators to design more targeted and impactful campaigns
- Researchers can use the ELM to generate hypotheses about the factors that influence persuasion outcomes and to design studies that test these hypotheses in real-world settings
Key Terms to Review (30)
Ability to process: The ability to process refers to an individual's capacity to understand, interpret, and respond to persuasive messages. This skill is crucial in determining how effectively a person can engage with arguments, assess their credibility, and make informed decisions based on the information presented. Factors like motivation, cognitive resources, and prior knowledge significantly influence this ability, impacting the overall outcome of persuasive communication.
Advertising: Advertising is a communication strategy aimed at promoting products, services, or ideas to influence consumer behavior. It employs various media channels to deliver persuasive messages that encourage the target audience to take action, such as purchasing a product or changing their perception. Advertising is closely tied to theories of persuasion as it seeks to engage emotions, establish credibility, and create compelling narratives that resonate with consumers.
Berlo's SMCR Model: Berlo's SMCR Model is a communication framework that breaks down the communication process into four key components: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver. This model emphasizes the importance of understanding each element to enhance effective communication, making it relevant for analyzing how information flows in organizations, the dynamics of formal and informal networks, and strategies for persuasion.
Central route: The central route refers to a method of persuasion where individuals are influenced by the content of a message and the strength of its arguments. This approach involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the information presented, leading to more enduring attitude changes when compared to superficial processing.
Cognitive dissonance: Cognitive dissonance is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when an individual experiences discomfort due to holding conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. This mental clash often prompts the individual to seek resolution by changing one of the conflicting beliefs, rationalizing their behavior, or seeking out information that aligns with their existing beliefs. This concept is crucial for understanding how media influences perception and behavior, as well as how persuasion techniques can lead to changes in attitudes and beliefs.
Door-in-the-face technique: The door-in-the-face technique is a persuasion strategy where a person makes a large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. This approach plays on the concept of reciprocity, making the second request seem more acceptable after the first larger request is denied, which increases the likelihood that the target will comply.
Elaboration likelihood model: The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is a psychological theory that explains how people are persuaded through two main routes: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the message, leading to lasting attitude change, while the peripheral route relies on superficial cues, such as attractiveness or credibility of the source, resulting in temporary attitude shifts. Understanding this model helps in recognizing how ethical considerations, theories of persuasion, and effective delivery techniques can influence persuasive communication.
Emotional appeal: Emotional appeal is a persuasive technique that aims to elicit strong feelings in the audience to influence their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. By connecting on an emotional level, communicators can create a bond with their audience that may lead to increased persuasion, making it a powerful tool in various forms of communication, including advertising and political messaging.
Foot-in-the-door technique: The foot-in-the-door technique is a persuasion strategy where a person first gets someone to agree to a small request, followed by a larger request. This method is based on the idea that once someone has committed to a small action, they are more likely to comply with a larger, related request due to the psychological principle of consistency. This technique leverages the human tendency to align actions with beliefs and self-image.
Health communication: Health communication refers to the study and practice of how information about health is conveyed, understood, and acted upon by individuals and communities. It plays a vital role in promoting health literacy, influencing health behaviors, and ensuring effective communication between healthcare providers and patients, ultimately impacting health outcomes.
Heuristic-systematic model: The heuristic-systematic model is a dual-process theory of persuasion that explains how individuals process persuasive messages through two distinct routes: the heuristic route and the systematic route. The heuristic route relies on mental shortcuts and cues, such as the attractiveness of a speaker, while the systematic route involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the message content.
Informed consent: Informed consent is the process through which individuals are provided with essential information about a study, treatment, or intervention, allowing them to make knowledgeable decisions regarding their participation. This concept emphasizes the importance of transparency and understanding in communication, ensuring that individuals are aware of potential risks, benefits, and alternatives before agreeing to participate. Informed consent is not just a one-time event but an ongoing dialogue that fosters trust and ethical interactions.
John Cacioppo: John Cacioppo was a prominent psychologist known for his research on the science of loneliness and social connection, significantly contributing to our understanding of how social relationships influence health and well-being. His work emphasizes the psychological and physiological effects of social isolation and the importance of belongingness, connecting directly to theories of persuasion by illustrating how emotional states can impact individuals' receptiveness to persuasive messages.
Latitude of acceptance: Latitude of acceptance refers to the range of ideas or positions that an individual finds acceptable or agreeable when exposed to persuasive messages. This concept highlights how people have varying thresholds for accepting new beliefs based on their existing attitudes, with a narrower latitude indicating less openness to change. The idea is central to understanding how persuasion works, as it influences whether a message is likely to be accepted, rejected, or ignored.
Latitude of Rejection: Latitude of rejection refers to the range of beliefs or attitudes that an individual finds unacceptable when confronted with a persuasive message. This concept highlights the idea that people have specific zones of acceptance and rejection regarding opinions or ideas, affecting how they process persuasive communications. The latitude of rejection plays a crucial role in understanding how individuals react to attempts at persuasion, influencing whether they accept, reject, or remain indifferent to new ideas.
Logical appeal: Logical appeal refers to a method of persuasion that relies on reasoning, facts, and logical arguments to convince an audience. It often involves presenting data, statistics, and structured arguments to support a claim, which can enhance the credibility of the message and engage the audience's rational thinking. This form of appeal is crucial in effectively persuading individuals by making them feel informed and empowered to make decisions based on evidence.
Manipulation: Manipulation refers to the act of skillfully influencing or controlling others to achieve a specific goal, often without their awareness. This can involve using persuasive communication techniques that may be deceptive or exploitative, raising ethical concerns about the means used to persuade. In the context of persuasive communication, manipulation can significantly impact how messages are received and interpreted.
Message complexity: Message complexity refers to the level of intricacy or difficulty in understanding a persuasive message, influenced by factors such as content, structure, and delivery. The more complex a message is, the harder it may be for the audience to process and engage with the information presented, potentially affecting the effectiveness of persuasion efforts.
Motivation: Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in individuals to be continually interested and committed to a task or goal. It plays a crucial role in influencing behavior and actions, driving people to achieve objectives, and is especially important in the context of persuasive communication where the aim is to encourage specific behaviors or beliefs.
Need for Cognition: Need for cognition refers to an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking deeply about issues and problems. This personality trait influences how people process information, making them more likely to analyze arguments, reflect on complex topics, and seek out new ideas. High need for cognition often correlates with greater resistance to persuasive messages that lack strong arguments, as these individuals prefer engaging with substantial content rather than superficial appeals.
Peripheral route: The peripheral route is a method of persuasion that relies on superficial cues and emotional appeals rather than deep cognitive processing of the content. This route is often utilized when the audience is not motivated to pay close attention or lacks the ability to engage in thoughtful evaluation of the message. As a result, the effectiveness of persuasion through this route typically hinges on factors like the attractiveness of the communicator, the mood elicited by the message, or other environmental cues.
Personal relevance: Personal relevance refers to the degree to which an individual perceives a topic or message as important or meaningful to their own life and experiences. It influences how people process information, making them more likely to engage with persuasive messages that resonate with their own beliefs, values, and situations.
Political Communication: Political communication is the way information, messages, and symbols are used to influence public opinion and behavior regarding political issues, candidates, and policies. This form of communication encompasses various mediums such as speeches, advertisements, social media, and news coverage, all aimed at shaping political narratives and encouraging civic engagement.
Prior Knowledge: Prior knowledge refers to the information, experiences, and understandings that a person possesses before encountering new information. This existing knowledge plays a critical role in how individuals interpret, process, and integrate new information, particularly in persuasive contexts where messages must resonate with what the audience already knows.
Reciprocity principle: The reciprocity principle is a social psychology concept that suggests people feel obliged to return favors or concessions offered to them. This principle plays a significant role in persuasion, as individuals are more likely to comply with requests from those who have provided them with something first, whether it's a gift, information, or assistance. This creates a sense of indebtedness that can be leveraged to influence behavior.
Richard E. Petty: Richard E. Petty is a prominent social psychologist known for his work in the field of persuasion and attitude change. He is best recognized for developing the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), which explains how people process persuasive messages through two main routes: the central route and the peripheral route, depending on their motivation and ability to think about the message.
Situational distractions: Situational distractions refer to external factors or environmental elements that can divert attention away from the main focus of communication, thereby impeding effective listening and understanding. These distractions can arise from various sources, such as noise, interruptions, or visual stimuli, which compete for the audience's attention and can influence the persuasiveness of a message.
Social judgment theory: Social judgment theory is a communication theory that explores how people perceive and evaluate messages based on their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. It explains that individuals have a range of positions on an issue, which include their latitudes of acceptance, rejection, and non-commitment, influencing how they respond to persuasive attempts. This theory plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of persuasion and the ethical considerations surrounding it, as it emphasizes the importance of aligning messages with the audience's beliefs for effective communication.
Source credibility: Source credibility refers to the trustworthiness and expertise of a communicator or information source, which plays a crucial role in how messages are received and interpreted. When a source is perceived as credible, audiences are more likely to accept the information presented, making it a vital component of effective persuasion. Factors that contribute to source credibility include the communicator's qualifications, experience, reputation, and perceived honesty.
Transactional Model: The transactional model of communication describes the process of communication as a dynamic and ongoing exchange between participants, where both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model highlights the importance of context, feedback, and the interdependence of communicators in shaping meaning, emphasizing that communication is not a linear process but rather a collaborative interaction.