17.1 History of international climate negotiations
6 min read•july 22, 2024
International climate negotiations have evolved significantly since 1992. From the to the , these talks have shaped global efforts to combat climate change. Key milestones include the , , and .
Various factors influence negotiation outcomes, including scientific evidence, economic interests, and political will. While agreements have established frameworks for cooperation and emissions reduction, challenges remain. The effectiveness of these negotiations in addressing the climate crisis continues to be debated.
Evolution and Effectiveness of International Climate Negotiations
Evolution of climate negotiations
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- 1992: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established at the in
- Aimed to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system
- Recognized the principle of "" based on countries' historical contributions to emissions and their capacities to respond
- 1997: Kyoto Protocol adopted under the UNFCCC framework
- Set legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries () for the period 2008-2012
- Introduced market-based mechanisms such as emissions trading, , and to facilitate cost-effective mitigation
- 2001: United States withdraws from the Kyoto Protocol citing concerns about economic impacts and lack of commitments for developing countries
- Weakened the effectiveness of the agreement as the US was the largest emitter at the time
- 2007: adopted at the 13th Conference of the Parties () to the UNFCCC
- Set a timeline and process for negotiating a new comprehensive global climate agreement to be concluded by 2009
- Emphasized the need for enhanced action on adaptation, technology transfer, and financial support for developing countries
- 2009: Copenhagen Accord reached at but not formally adopted by all parties
- Non-binding agreement that recognized the scientific view that global temperature rise should be limited to 2°C above pre-industrial levels to avoid dangerous climate change
- Countries submitted voluntary emissions reduction pledges but their collective ambition was insufficient to meet the 2°C target
- 2015: Paris Agreement adopted at as a successor to the Kyoto Protocol
- Aims to strengthen the global response to climate change by keeping global temperature rise well below 2°C and pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels
- Requires all countries to submit nationally determined contributions () outlining their post-2020 climate actions and to update them every five years with increasing ambition
- 2021: Glasgow Climate Pact reached at COP26 to accelerate climate action in the 2020s
- Reaffirms the Paris Agreement goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C and resolves to pursue efforts to meet this target
- Calls for a phase-down of unabated coal power and inefficient fossil fuel subsidies recognizing the need for support towards a just transition
Milestones in negotiation history
- 1992: Establishment of the UNFCCC at the Rio Earth Summit
- Laid the foundation for international cooperation and negotiation on addressing climate change
- Recognized climate change as a common concern of humankind and set the objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations
- 1997: Adoption of the Kyoto Protocol as the first legally binding international agreement on climate change
- Committed developed countries to quantified emissions reduction targets and introduced flexibility mechanisms
- Significant milestone in translating the UNFCCC's objectives into concrete actions and commitments
- 2001: United States withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol under the Bush administration
- Significant setback for the Protocol's effectiveness and momentum as the US was a major emitter
- Highlighted the challenges of ensuring universal participation and ambition in climate agreements
- 2007: Adoption of the Bali Road Map at COP13 charting a course for a post-Kyoto agreement
- Renewed momentum for negotiating a new comprehensive global climate agreement with a clear timeline
- Launched the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA) to drive the negotiation process
- 2009: Copenhagen Accord reached at COP15 but not formally adopted
- Marked a shift towards a bottom-up approach of voluntary pledges rather than top-down legally
- Disappointment and setback due to the lack of a legally binding agreement and insufficient collective ambition
- 2015: Adoption of the Paris Agreement at COP21 as a landmark achievement in climate diplomacy
- Universal agreement with participation from all countries signaling a new era of global cooperation on climate change
- Introduced a hybrid approach combining bottom-up NDCs with top-down elements such as global stocktakes and long-term goals
- 2021: Glasgow Climate Pact reached at COP26 to accelerate implementation of the Paris Agreement
- Increased ambition and commitment to limiting global warming to 1.5°C and phasing down unabated coal power and inefficient fossil fuel subsidies
- Finalized the Paris Agreement rulebook on issues such as transparency, carbon markets, and common timeframes for NDCs
Factors influencing negotiation outcomes
- Scientific understanding and evidence of climate change impacts
- Growing scientific consensus on the anthropogenic causes and risks of climate change has driven the urgency for global action ()
- Advancements in climate science have informed the negotiation agenda and targets ( in the Paris Agreement)
- Economic considerations and interests of countries
- Concerns about the costs of emissions reductions and potential impacts on economic growth and competitiveness have influenced countries' positions (US withdrawal from Kyoto Protocol)
- Opportunities for low-carbon development, green jobs, and have also shaped negotiation outcomes (Green Climate Fund)
- Political will and leadership from key countries and individuals
- The level of political commitment and leadership from major emitters and influential countries has been critical to the ambition and success of agreements ( before Paris)
- Personal engagement and diplomacy by political leaders and negotiators have helped build trust and consensus (French diplomacy in Paris)
- Equity and fairness concerns in sharing responsibilities and burdens
- Debates over the differentiated responsibilities and capabilities of developed and developing countries have been central to the negotiations (principle of common but differentiated responsibilities)
- Issues of historical responsibility, per capita emissions, and the right to sustainable development have shaped the balance of commitments (Kyoto Protocol's focus on developed countries)
- Role and influence of non-state actors in the negotiation process
- Increasing engagement and pressure from civil society organizations, businesses, cities, and other stakeholders have added momentum and accountability to the negotiations (Marches, divestment campaigns)
- Participation of non-state actors as observers and in parallel forums has brought diverse perspectives and solutions to the table ()
Effectiveness of international agreements
- Successes and positive outcomes of climate negotiations
- Establishment of a global framework and principles for cooperation on climate change through the UNFCCC (near-universal participation with 197 parties)
- Adoption of legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries through the Kyoto Protocol (first commitment period achieved)
- Broadening of participation and increased ambition through the Paris Agreement (NDCs covering over 90% of global emissions)
- Mobilization of climate finance, technology transfer, and capacity building for developing countries (goal of $100 billion per year by 2020)
- Challenges and limitations in addressing the climate crisis
- Insufficient ambition of current emissions reduction pledges to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement (NDCs projected to lead to 2.7-3.1°C warming by 2100)
- Lack of strong enforcement and compliance mechanisms for ensuring countries meet their commitments (Kyoto Protocol's non-binding consequences)
- Slow and uneven progress in translating global agreements into national policies and actions (gap between pledges and implementation)
- Persistent divisions and tensions between developed and developing countries over responsibilities and support (finance, loss and damage)
- Overall assessment of the role and effectiveness of climate negotiations
- International negotiations have played a crucial role in raising awareness, setting global goals, and mobilizing collective action on climate change (Paris Agreement as a turning point)
- Agreements have provided a framework for countries to communicate their actions, report their progress, and engage in dialogue and peer pressure (transparency framework)
- However, the pace and scale of action have been insufficient to address the urgency and magnitude of the climate crisis (emissions continue to rise)
- Strengthening the ambition and implementation of commitments remains a critical challenge for future negotiations (ratcheting up NDCs, closing the emissions gap)
Key Terms to Review (25)
1.5°c goal: The 1.5°C goal refers to the target established in the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to no more than 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. This goal is crucial for reducing the risks and impacts associated with climate change, as it aims to prevent catastrophic effects on ecosystems, human health, and economies worldwide.
Annex I Parties: Annex I Parties refer to a group of countries identified in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that are obligated to reduce greenhouse gas emissions due to their historical contributions to climate change and their economic capabilities. These parties primarily include developed nations and economies in transition, which are expected to take the lead in combating climate change by implementing specific emission reduction commitments.
Bali Road Map: The Bali Road Map refers to the framework established during the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali, Indonesia, which aimed to advance international climate negotiations. This roadmap sought to lay the groundwork for future agreements, particularly in relation to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change impacts, emphasizing the importance of collaboration among nations to address this global challenge.
Binding targets: Binding targets are legally enforceable commitments established during international climate negotiations that require participating countries to achieve specific greenhouse gas emission reduction goals. These targets are crucial for holding nations accountable and ensuring collective action towards limiting global warming, as they create a structured framework for climate agreements and facilitate measurable progress in emissions reductions.
Carbon emissions trading: Carbon emissions trading is an environmental policy tool that allows companies to buy and sell allowances for greenhouse gas emissions, effectively creating a market for carbon dioxide and other pollutants. This system is designed to incentivize reductions in emissions by allowing companies that can reduce their emissions at a lower cost to sell their extra allowances to companies facing higher costs of reduction. By linking financial incentives to emission reductions, carbon emissions trading aims to address climate change in a more cost-effective manner.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a market-based approach established under the Kyoto Protocol that allows developed countries to invest in emission reduction projects in developing countries as a way to meet their own greenhouse gas reduction targets. By facilitating financial support and technology transfer to projects like renewable energy or energy efficiency in developing nations, the CDM aims to promote sustainable development while also contributing to global efforts to combat climate change.
Climate finance: Climate finance refers to the financial resources and investments that are directed toward projects, initiatives, and policies aimed at addressing climate change and promoting sustainable development. This includes funding for mitigation efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as well as adaptation strategies to help communities adjust to the impacts of climate change. Climate finance plays a crucial role in facilitating the transition to a low-carbon economy and supporting vulnerable populations in building resilience.
Common but differentiated responsibilities: Common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR) is a principle in international environmental law that recognizes the varying capabilities and responsibilities of different countries in addressing global environmental challenges, particularly climate change. This concept emphasizes that while all states have a shared obligation to protect the environment, developed countries are expected to take on greater responsibilities due to their historical contributions to environmental degradation and their greater financial and technological resources.
COP13: COP13, or the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was held in 2007 in Bali, Indonesia. This pivotal meeting marked a significant moment in the history of international climate negotiations as it set the framework for future agreements aimed at combating climate change and emphasized the need for urgent action from both developed and developing nations.
COP15: COP15, or the 15th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, was a significant international climate summit held in 2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark. It aimed to create a new global agreement to address climate change and build upon the Kyoto Protocol, addressing emissions reductions and climate financing among participating nations.
COP21: COP21, or the 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was a landmark global climate conference held in Paris in 2015. It aimed to bring nations together to negotiate a universal agreement to combat climate change and limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
Copenhagen Accord: The Copenhagen Accord is a non-binding agreement reached during the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP15) in Copenhagen, Denmark, aimed at addressing climate change and reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. It represents a significant moment in international climate negotiations, as it marked the first time that nations collectively acknowledged the need to limit global temperature rise to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, while also recognizing the importance of financial support for developing countries in their efforts to combat climate change.
Earth Summit: The Earth Summit refers to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It was a landmark event that brought together leaders from around the world to address pressing global environmental issues and promote sustainable development. The summit produced significant documents like Agenda 21, which laid out a comprehensive plan for global action to achieve sustainability in economic growth, social equity, and environmental protection.
Equity and justice in climate action: Equity and justice in climate action refer to the principles that ensure fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, particularly marginalized communities, in climate-related decision-making processes. This concept highlights the need for policies that not only reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also address social inequalities exacerbated by climate change impacts, promoting inclusivity and fairness in the transition towards a sustainable future.
Glasgow Climate Pact: The Glasgow Climate Pact is an international agreement reached during the 26th UN Climate Change Conference (COP26) in November 2021 that aims to accelerate action toward the goals of the Paris Agreement. It emphasizes the need for countries to take more ambitious steps to combat climate change, particularly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and supporting vulnerable nations in adapting to climate impacts.
IPCC Assessment Reports: IPCC Assessment Reports are comprehensive documents published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that synthesize the latest scientific knowledge on climate change, its impacts, and potential adaptation and mitigation strategies. These reports play a crucial role in informing policymakers and the public about climate-related issues, and they also help shape international climate negotiations by providing a scientific basis for understanding climate sensitivity and the uncertainty in future projections.
Joint implementation (JI): Joint implementation (JI) is a mechanism that allows countries to collaborate on greenhouse gas reduction projects in order to meet their emissions reduction commitments under international agreements. By investing in projects in other countries, nations can earn emission reduction credits that contribute towards their own targets, fostering cooperation and technology transfer between developed and developing nations.
Kyoto Protocol: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that commits its parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the premise that global warming exists and human-made CO2 emissions have caused it. This agreement reflects the growing acknowledgment of climate change and aims to set legally binding obligations for developed countries to decrease their emissions, thus connecting to broader discussions about climate science, global temperature trends, and greenhouse gas management.
Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action: The Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action is an initiative established during the 2016 UN climate conference in Marrakech, Morocco, aimed at enhancing collaboration among non-state actors, such as businesses, cities, and civil society, to accelerate the implementation of the Paris Agreement. This partnership seeks to bridge the gap between national commitments and local actions by mobilizing and supporting climate initiatives that contribute to global climate goals.
NDCs: NDCs, or Nationally Determined Contributions, are climate action plans submitted by countries to outline their commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change. They serve as the backbone of the Paris Agreement, where each country specifies its targets and strategies, reflecting national circumstances and capabilities while contributing to global climate goals.
Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty adopted in 2015 that aims to address climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It establishes a framework for countries to set and achieve their own greenhouse gas reduction targets, emphasizing the importance of sustainable development and climate resilience.
Rio de Janeiro: Rio de Janeiro is a coastal city in Brazil, known for its stunning beaches, vibrant culture, and significant role in international climate negotiations. It gained prominence in this context with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, held there in 1992, which marked a pivotal moment in global environmental policymaking.
UNFCCC: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty established in 1992 aimed at addressing climate change and its impacts. It serves as a foundation for global climate negotiations, providing a framework for countries to collaborate in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts.
US-China Joint Announcement: The US-China Joint Announcement refers to a significant agreement made between the United States and China in November 2014, where both nations committed to taking action on climate change. This agreement marked a pivotal moment in international climate negotiations, as it represented a rare collaboration between the world's two largest greenhouse gas emitters, aiming to set ambitious targets for reducing carbon emissions and enhancing global climate efforts.
Voluntary commitments: Voluntary commitments refer to pledges made by countries or organizations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or take other climate action without being legally bound by international law. These commitments are crucial in fostering cooperation and collective action, as they allow parties to express their dedication to addressing climate change while maintaining flexibility in how they achieve their goals.