✝️Intro to Christianity Unit 8 – Medieval Christianity & Scholasticism

Historical Context

• Medieval period in Europe lasted from the 5th to the 15th century AD following the fall of the Western Roman Empire
• Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe during this time with the Catholic Church as the primary religious authority
• Feudal system emerged with a hierarchical structure of lords and vassals (knights, peasants)
• Crusades (1095-1291) were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule
  • Resulted in increased contact and trade between Europe and the Middle East
  • Led to the development of new military orders (Knights Templar, Hospitallers)
• Rise of monasticism with the establishment of religious orders (Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans) that followed a strict rule of life and devotion
• Growth of universities in Europe (Bologna, Paris, Oxford) as centers of learning and scholarship
• Black Death (1347-1351) was a devastating pandemic that killed an estimated 30-60% of Europe's population and had significant social and economic consequences

Key Figures and Thinkers

• St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430) was an influential theologian and philosopher whose works (Confessions, City of God) shaped medieval Christian thought
  • Developed the concept of original sin and the doctrine of predestination
  • Emphasized the importance of grace and the role of the Church in salvation
• Pope Gregory I (540-604), also known as Gregory the Great, was a significant reformer who strengthened papal authority and sent missionaries to convert pagan peoples
• St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547) founded the Benedictine order and wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict, which became the standard for monastic life in the West
• St. Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) founded the Franciscan order and emphasized a life of poverty, simplicity, and service to others
  • His example inspired a renewed focus on the humanity of Christ and the importance of living the Gospel message
• St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was a Dominican friar and one of the most influential theologians and philosophers of the medieval period
  • Synthesized Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy in his magnum opus, the Summa Theologica
  • Developed the concept of natural law and the idea that faith and reason are compatible and complementary
• Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) was an Italian poet whose Divine Comedy is considered one of the greatest works of world literature and a masterpiece of medieval Christian thought

Core Beliefs and Doctrines

• Belief in the Holy Trinity: one God in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit)
• Doctrine of the Incarnation: Jesus Christ as fully divine and fully human
• Concept of original sin: the idea that all humans are born with a sinful nature due to the fall of Adam and Eve
• Importance of grace: the unmerited favor of God that enables humans to be saved and to live a righteous life
• Centrality of the sacraments: visible signs of invisible grace instituted by Christ (Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, Matrimony)
  • Eucharist as the real presence of Christ's body and blood under the appearances of bread and wine
  • Penance as the means of obtaining forgiveness for sins committed after Baptism
• Belief in the authority of the Church and the Pope as the successor of St. Peter and the Vicar of Christ on earth
• Doctrine of purgatory: a state of purification after death for those who die in a state of grace but are not yet fully purified
• Veneration of saints and relics as intercessors and models of holiness

Church Structure and Hierarchy

• Pope as the supreme head of the Catholic Church and the successor of St. Peter
  • Elected by the College of Cardinals
  • Possesses full and supreme authority over the universal Church
• Cardinals as high-ranking clergy who serve as advisors to the Pope and elect new Popes
• Bishops as successors of the apostles who oversee dioceses (geographical areas) and have the fullness of the priesthood
  • Appointed by the Pope
  • Responsible for teaching, governing, and sanctifying the faithful in their dioceses
• Priests as ordained ministers who serve under bishops and administer the sacraments
  • Trained in seminaries and ordained by bishops
  • Responsible for celebrating Mass, hearing confessions, and providing pastoral care
• Deacons as ordained ministers who assist priests and bishops in their ministry
• Monasteries as communities of monks or nuns who live apart from society and dedicate their lives to prayer, work, and study
  • Headed by an abbot or abbess
  • Follow a specific rule of life (e.g., Benedictine, Cistercian, Carthusian)
• Mendicant orders (Franciscans, Dominicans) as religious orders that rely on charity and live among the people to preach and serve

Scholastic Method and Philosophy

• Scholasticism as a method of critical thought and a system of education that dominated medieval universities
  • Seeks to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy (particularly Aristotle)
  • Emphasizes the use of reason, logic, and dialectic to arrive at truth
• Scholastic method involves the systematic examination of a question through the presentation of arguments for and against, followed by a resolution or synthesis
  • Typically presented in the form of disputations or written treatises
  • Makes extensive use of syllogisms and other forms of deductive reasoning
• Key scholastic philosophers:
  • St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) developed the ontological argument for the existence of God
  • Peter Abelard (1079-1142) emphasized the use of reason in theology and the importance of individual conscience
  • St. Bonaventure (1221-1274) developed a mystical theology that emphasized the role of divine illumination in human knowledge
  • St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) synthesized Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy and developed the concept of natural law
• Scholastic philosophy had a significant impact on the development of Western thought, particularly in the areas of theology, philosophy, and natural science
  • Laid the foundation for the scientific method and the modern university system
  • Influenced later thinkers such as Descartes, Leibniz, and Kant

Art and Architecture

• Romanesque art and architecture (10th-12th centuries) characterized by thick walls, round arches, and large towers
  • Examples include the Abbey Church of Saint-Étienne in Caen, France and the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Spain
  • Features elaborate sculptural decoration, particularly on church portals and capitals
• Gothic art and architecture (12th-16th centuries) characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and large windows
  • Examples include the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris, France and the Cathedral of Chartres in France
  • Features elaborate stained glass windows and sculptural decoration, particularly on church facades and interiors
• Illuminated manuscripts as handwritten books with elaborate decorations and illustrations
  • Examples include the Book of Kells and the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
  • Often used for religious texts such as Bibles, psalters, and books of hours
• Frescoes and mosaics as forms of wall decoration used in churches and other religious buildings
  • Examples include the frescoes in the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi, Italy and the mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy
• Development of new artistic techniques such as perspective, chiaroscuro, and oil painting during the late medieval and early Renaissance periods
• Art and architecture as a means of expressing religious devotion, conveying theological concepts, and asserting the power and authority of the Church

Impact on Society and Culture

• The Catholic Church was the dominant institution in medieval Europe and had a significant impact on all aspects of society and culture
  • Provided education, healthcare, and social services through monasteries, schools, and hospitals
  • Acted as a unifying force in a fragmented political landscape
  • Served as a patron of the arts and learning
• The Church's teachings and values shaped social norms and moral standards
  • Emphasized the importance of charity, humility, and obedience
  • Promoted the idea of a just society based on the concept of the "great chain of being"
  • Discouraged practices such as polygamy, divorce, and remarriage
• The Church's calendar and liturgical celebrations structured the rhythm of daily life
  • Holy days and feast days marked important events and seasons
  • Pilgrimages to holy sites (Rome, Jerusalem, Santiago de Compostela) were popular forms of devotion and travel
• The Church's doctrine of "just war" provided a moral framework for warfare and influenced the development of chivalry and the code of knightly conduct
• The Church's opposition to usury (charging interest on loans) shaped economic practices and the development of banking and finance
• The Church's support for the Crusades had a significant impact on relations between Europe and the Islamic world
  • Increased contact and trade between Europe and the Middle East
  • Contributed to the development of new military orders and techniques
  • Fueled religious and cultural tensions that persist to the present day

Legacy and Influence

• The Catholic Church remains the largest Christian denomination in the world with over 1.3 billion members
  • Continues to play a significant role in global affairs and social issues
  • Maintains an extensive network of schools, hospitals, and charitable organizations
• Medieval scholasticism laid the foundation for the development of modern philosophy, theology, and natural science
  • Influenced later thinkers such as Descartes, Leibniz, and Kant
  • Contributed to the development of the scientific method and the modern university system
• Gothic art and architecture had a lasting impact on Western art and culture
  • Influenced later architectural styles such as Victorian Gothic and Art Nouveau
  • Inspired countless imitations and revivals in the 19th and 20th centuries
• The Crusades had a lasting impact on relations between Europe and the Islamic world
  • Contributed to the development of new trade routes and the exchange of ideas and technology
  • Fueled religious and cultural tensions that persist to the present day
• The Church's teachings on social justice and the dignity of the human person have influenced modern Catholic social teaching and movements for social change
  • Encyclicals such as Rerum Novarum (1891) and Centesimus Annus (1991) address issues such as labor rights, economic justice, and the role of the state
  • Catholic activists such as Dorothy Day and Oscar Romero have worked for peace and justice in the modern world
• The Church's intellectual and cultural heritage continues to be studied and celebrated in universities, museums, and cultural institutions around the world
  • Medieval art, music, and literature are widely recognized as masterpieces of human creativity and expression
  • The Church's archives and libraries contain countless treasures of human knowledge and history