11.3 Liberal theology and fundamentalism
4 min read•july 31, 2024
and represent two contrasting responses to modernity within Christianity. These movements emerged in the 19th and early 20th centuries, reshaping how believers interpreted scripture, viewed tradition, and engaged with the world around them.
The clash between liberal and perspectives sparked heated debates, institutional splits, and lasting cultural impacts. Their divergent approaches to biblical interpretation, science, and social issues continue to shape Christian thought and practice in the modern era.
Liberal Theology
Key Characteristics and Concepts
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- Liberal theology emerged in the 19th century reinterpreted Christian doctrine in light of modern knowledge and scientific advancements
- Emphasized reason and experience over tradition and dogma
- Engaged with modern biblical criticism
- Focused on ethical teachings of Jesus rather than supernatural elements
- Interpreted biblical narratives symbolically or metaphorically rather than literally
- Viewed biblical stories as expressions of human religious experience rather than historical fact
- Embraced emphasized God's presence within the world and human consciousness
- Prioritized and moral progress
- Viewed Christianity as a force for positive social change and human betterment
- Embraced religious pluralism recognized value in other faith traditions
- Sought interfaith dialogue and cooperation
Prominent Figures and Contributions
- pioneered modern liberal theology
- Emphasized religious experience and feeling as the core of faith
- Developed concept of ""
- focused on historical Jesus and ethical teachings
- Wrote influential work "What is Christianity?"
- Emphasized Jesus' moral teachings over dogmatic theology
- developed program of demythologization
- Sought to interpret New Testament in light of modern worldview
- Emphasized existential meaning of biblical texts
Fundamentalism as a Response
Origins and Core Beliefs
- Emerged in early 20th century as conservative Protestant reaction against liberal theology, modernism, and secularization
- Term "fundamentalism" derived from pamphlet series "" (1910-1915)
- Outlined core doctrines considered essential to Christian faith
- Defended "fundamentals" of Christian belief included:
- Biblical
- Divinity of Christ
- and
- Emphasized of the Bible
- Rejected higher criticism and modern scientific theories contradicting biblical accounts
Development and Influence
- Scopes "Monkey Trial" of 1925 became symbolic battleground between fundamentalist and modernist perspectives
- Centered on teaching of evolution in schools
- Highlighted tension between religious belief and scientific education
- Gained strength through establishment of ()
- Organized conferences () promoted fundamentalist teachings
- Created publications (The Fundamentalist) disseminated fundamentalist views
- Influenced by broader social and cultural changes included:
- Urbanization
- Immigration
- Shifts in traditional moral values
- Responded to perceived threats to traditional Christian beliefs and practices
Liberal vs Fundamentalist Interpretation
Approaches to Biblical Texts
- Liberal interpretations employed historical-critical methods
- Considered historical and cultural context of biblical texts
- Analyzed authorship, date, and literary genre of scriptures
- Fundamentalist approaches emphasized literal, plain-sense meaning
- Rejected allegorical or symbolic interpretations unless explicitly indicated
- Viewed Bible as clear and self-interpreting
- Liberals viewed Bible as human document inspired by divine revelation
- Fundamentalists asserted Bible's divine authorship and inerrancy in all matters
- more common in liberal theology
- Allowed for evolving understandings of God's nature and will
- Fundamentalists emphasized unchanging nature of biblical truth
- Liberals prioritized ethical teachings and broader themes of scripture
- Fundamentalists defended historicity of all biblical narratives (Creation account in Genesis)
Role of Tradition and Scholarship
- Liberal approaches incorporated insights from secular scholarship
- Integrated findings from archaeology ()
- Drew on comparative religion studies (parallels with other ancient Near Eastern texts)
- Fundamentalist interpretations often resisted such integration
- Viewed secular scholarship with suspicion
- Prioritized traditional theological interpretations
- Liberals more open to reinterpreting traditional doctrines
- Fundamentalists more likely to adhere to established orthodox interpretations
- Role of church authority differed between approaches
- Liberals emphasized individual interpretation and reason
- Fundamentalists valued traditional ecclesiastical authority
Modernist-Fundamentalist Controversy
Institutional and Denominational Impact
- Led to significant denominational splits reshaped landscape of American Protestantism
- Northern Baptist Convention split over fundamentalist-modernist issues
- Presbyterian Church experienced schism resulting in Orthodox Presbyterian Church
- Contributed to development of neo-evangelicalism
- Sought middle ground between fundamentalism and liberalism
- Influenced figures like Billy Graham
- Shaped institutions like
- Affected Christian higher education
- Established liberal seminaries ()
- Created conservative Bible colleges ()
- Intensified public discourse on relationship between faith and science
- Debates over evolution and age of Earth
- Discussions on compatibility of modern science and biblical faith
Societal and Political Implications
- Influenced political alignments
- Fundamentalism became associated with conservative politics
- Liberal theology often aligned with more progressive political movements
- Shaped approaches to Christian missions and evangelism
- Fundamentalists emphasized personal conversion
- Liberals focused more on social reform and interfaith dialogue
- Legacy continues to influence contemporary discussions within Christianity
- Debates over biblical authority
- Disagreements on social issues (LGBTQ+ rights, gender roles)
- Discussions on church's role in modern society
- Impacted public perception of Christianity
- Media portrayals often emphasized conflict between science and religion
- Shaped cultural stereotypes of religious conservatives and liberals
Key Terms to Review (31)
Adolf von Harnack: Adolf von Harnack was a German theologian and a key figure in the development of liberal theology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He emphasized the importance of understanding the historical context of Christianity and sought to reconcile faith with modern science and philosophy, leading to tensions with more traditionalist views, particularly fundamentalism.
Anti-modernism: Anti-modernism refers to a cultural and intellectual stance that critiques and opposes the values and ideas associated with modernity, including rationalism, individualism, and secularism. It often emphasizes a return to traditional beliefs, practices, and ways of life as a response to the perceived negative effects of modernization on society and spirituality.
Bible institutes: Bible institutes are educational institutions that focus primarily on the study of the Bible and Christian theology. They are designed to equip students for various forms of ministry, often emphasizing practical application of biblical principles over traditional academic frameworks. These institutes can vary in structure and curriculum but are commonly associated with movements within Christianity that either align with liberal theology or fundamentalism, depending on their interpretive approaches to scripture.
Bob Jones University: Bob Jones University (BJU) is a private, non-denominational Christian university located in Greenville, South Carolina, founded in 1927. Known for its conservative Christian values, BJU has been a significant institution within the context of the fundamentalist movement in American Christianity, especially in response to liberal theology that emerged in the early 20th century.
Bodily resurrection: Bodily resurrection refers to the belief that after death, the body will be restored and transformed into a new, glorified state, allowing individuals to live again in a physical form. This concept is central to Christian theology, especially concerning the resurrection of Jesus and the promise of eternal life for believers. It reflects the idea that physical existence matters and that the ultimate destiny involves both body and spirit.
Dead Sea Scrolls: The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of ancient Jewish texts discovered between 1947 and 1956 in caves near the Dead Sea. These texts, dating from the third century BCE to the first century CE, include biblical manuscripts, sectarian writings, and other documents that provide significant insights into the beliefs and practices of Jewish groups during the Second Temple period. Their discovery has sparked discussions on how they relate to both liberal theology and fundamentalism, challenging interpretations of scripture and religious authority.
Divine immanence: Divine immanence refers to the belief that God is present and active within creation, not separate or distant from it. This concept emphasizes that the divine essence permeates the universe and influences human experience, fostering a close relationship between God and humanity. It contrasts with the idea of divine transcendence, which views God as wholly other and beyond the physical world.
Friedrich Schleiermacher: Friedrich Schleiermacher was a German theologian and philosopher, often called the 'father of modern liberal theology,' who lived from 1768 to 1834. He is known for emphasizing the importance of personal religious experience and the need to interpret Christianity in light of contemporary thought. His work shaped how Christianity was studied and understood, influencing both liberal theology's approach to faith and the ongoing dialogue with fundamentalist perspectives.
Fuller Theological Seminary: Fuller Theological Seminary is an evangelical graduate school located in Pasadena, California, known for its commitment to academic excellence and spiritual formation. It provides a range of theological education programs aimed at preparing students for leadership roles in various Christian ministries. Fuller plays a significant role in the dialogue between liberal theology and fundamentalism, shaping how these theological perspectives are understood and articulated within the broader Christian community.
Fundamentalism: Fundamentalism is a strict adherence to specific theological doctrines, often in reaction to perceived threats from modernity or secularism. It emphasizes the inerrancy of sacred texts and often advocates for a literal interpretation, leading to a resistance against liberal theological perspectives and interreligious dialogue.
Fundamentalist: A fundamentalist is an individual or group that strictly adheres to a set of basic principles or doctrines, often in a religious context, and typically seeks to return to what they perceive as the original or foundational beliefs of their faith. This term is often associated with a reaction against modernity and liberal interpretations of religious texts, emphasizing literal interpretations and traditional values.
God-consciousness: God-consciousness refers to an awareness or perception of the divine presence and influence in one's life and the world around them. It emphasizes an individual's ability to recognize the sacred in everyday experiences and fosters a deep spiritual connection with God, which can influence one's beliefs, values, and behavior. This concept often intersects with discussions on the nature of faith and the interpretation of religious texts, particularly in the context of varying theological perspectives.
Historical-critical method: The historical-critical method is a scholarly approach used to analyze texts, especially religious scriptures, by examining their historical context, literary forms, and the intent of their authors. This method seeks to uncover the original meaning and purpose of texts by considering factors such as culture, language, and historical circumstances, thereby enhancing our understanding of the documents within their specific contexts.
Inerrancy: Inerrancy refers to the belief that the Bible, in its original manuscripts, is without error or fault in all its teachings, including those on faith, practice, history, and science. This concept asserts that Scripture is completely truthful and reliable, making it a foundational principle for many Christians regarding biblical authority. Inerrancy connects closely to discussions about how the Bible was formed and the nature of its authority as well as debates surrounding interpretations within different theological perspectives.
Liberal Theology: Liberal theology is a progressive approach to Christian thought that emphasizes reason, ethics, and the experiences of individuals while often questioning traditional interpretations of scripture and doctrine. This perspective emerged as a response to modernity, integrating insights from philosophy and science, and seeks to reconcile faith with contemporary understandings of the world. Liberal theology stands in contrast to more conservative forms of Christianity, promoting inclusivity and adaptability in beliefs.
Literal interpretation: Literal interpretation is a method of understanding texts, particularly religious texts, where the words and phrases are understood in their most basic and straightforward meanings. This approach emphasizes the text itself without considering allegorical or metaphorical meanings, leading to distinct interpretations of scripture and theological doctrines.
Literalism: Literalism is the interpretation of texts in a strict and direct manner, focusing on the literal meaning of the words without considering the context or any figurative language. This approach often emphasizes a conservative understanding of sacred texts, where every word is taken at face value, leading to a rigid application of doctrines and beliefs.
Modernist-fundamentalist controversy: The modernist-fundamentalist controversy refers to a significant theological conflict that arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily within Protestant Christianity. This dispute centered around the clash between modernist views, which embraced historical criticism and new understandings of faith and scripture, and fundamentalist perspectives, which held tightly to traditional interpretations of the Bible and key doctrines. The controversy shaped the trajectory of Christianity by influencing how believers engaged with contemporary culture and scientific advancements.
Moody Bible Institute: Moody Bible Institute is a Christian institution founded in 1886 by evangelist Dwight L. Moody, located in Chicago, Illinois. It focuses on biblical education and training for ministry, emphasizing a conservative, evangelical approach to theology that stands in contrast to liberal theology, particularly during the rise of fundamentalism in the early 20th century.
Niagara Bible Conference: The Niagara Bible Conference was a series of gatherings held in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that aimed to promote fundamentalist Christian beliefs and counter liberal theology. These conferences brought together evangelical leaders and laypeople who sought to affirm traditional doctrines of Christianity, particularly in response to the rising influence of modernism and higher criticism of the Bible. The Niagara Bible Conference played a crucial role in shaping the fundamentalist movement by emphasizing biblical inerrancy and the authority of Scripture.
Progressive revelation: Progressive revelation is the theological concept that God reveals truth gradually over time, with each successive revelation building upon previous ones. This understanding emphasizes that later scriptures or divine communications can provide deeper insights and clarifications regarding earlier messages, often accommodating the cultural and historical context of the audience receiving the revelation.
Rationalism: Rationalism is a philosophical viewpoint that emphasizes reason and intellect as the primary sources of knowledge and truth, often contrasting with faith or religious belief. This approach gained traction during the Enlightenment, when thinkers advocated for the application of reason to understand the world, including religious beliefs. It set the stage for liberal theology, which sought to harmonize faith with reason, while also giving rise to fundamentalism as a reaction against rationalist critiques of traditional beliefs.
Rudolf Bultmann: Rudolf Bultmann was a prominent 20th-century German theologian known for his work in biblical criticism and existential theology. He is best recognized for his approach to demythologizing the New Testament, which aimed to separate the mythical elements from the core message of Christianity. Bultmann's ideas significantly influenced liberal theology and sparked debates with fundamentalists regarding the interpretation of Scripture and the role of modernity in understanding faith.
Scopes Trial: The Scopes Trial was a 1925 legal case in Tennessee that debated the legality of teaching evolution in public schools, challenging the Butler Act which prohibited the teaching of Darwin's theory. This trial became a significant cultural clash between liberal theology, which embraced modern scientific thought, and fundamentalism, which held to a literal interpretation of the Bible. The trial symbolized the broader conflict between religion and science in American society during the early 20th century.
Second Coming of Christ: The Second Coming of Christ refers to the future event when Jesus Christ is prophesied to return to Earth, fulfilling biblical promises and establishing God's kingdom. This event is central to Christian eschatology and brings themes of hope, judgment, and the ultimate restoration of creation, with differing interpretations among various Christian traditions.
Social justice: Social justice is the concept of creating a fair and just society by addressing inequalities and ensuring that everyone has equal access to rights, opportunities, and resources. This idea emphasizes the importance of recognizing and rectifying systemic injustices related to race, gender, class, and other social categories, promoting the dignity of all individuals. The notion of social justice is deeply intertwined with moral principles found in ethical frameworks, as well as in discussions about theology and the role of faith in addressing societal issues.
Substitutionary Atonement: Substitutionary atonement is the theological concept that Christ took the place of sinners, bearing their punishment and reconciling them to God through his death. This idea emphasizes that Jesus died as a substitute for humanity, allowing believers to receive forgiveness and be restored to a right relationship with God. It highlights the serious nature of sin, the need for justice, and the grace offered through faith in Christ's sacrifice.
The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy: The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy is a declaration adopted in 1978 by a group of evangelical scholars and church leaders, asserting that the Bible is without error in its original manuscripts and is completely trustworthy in all matters it addresses. This statement aims to define the evangelical understanding of Scripture, emphasizing the importance of biblical authority amid the rise of liberal theology and skepticism regarding the Scriptures' reliability.
The fundamentals: The fundamentals refer to a set of core beliefs and doctrines that are essential to a particular faith or ideology, especially within Christianity. This term often emphasizes a return to strict adherence to traditional beliefs, particularly in response to modern interpretations and liberal theological views that may seek to adapt or reinterpret religious texts.
Union Theological Seminary: Union Theological Seminary is a prominent Christian seminary located in New York City, known for its progressive approach to theology and its commitment to liberal religious thought. Established in 1836, it has played a vital role in shaping modern theological education, emphasizing social justice, inclusivity, and the integration of faith with critical inquiry. The seminary often contrasts with more conservative theological institutions, particularly in its response to issues like biblical interpretation and the role of tradition.
Virgin Birth: The Virgin Birth refers to the Christian belief that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary, without the involvement of a human father. This doctrine is significant in affirming the divinity of Jesus and is foundational to understanding the nature of his incarnation as both fully human and fully divine. The belief raises important discussions around biblical interpretation, theological implications, and the varying perspectives within Christianity.