3.1 Executive Order 9066 and relocation
4 min read•august 1, 2024
, issued in 1942, led to the forced of 120,000 during . This action, fueled by racism and fear, uprooted entire communities from the West Coast, sending them to remote concentration camps.
The order's impact was devastating. Families lost homes, businesses, and savings. Living in harsh camp conditions, Japanese Americans faced long-lasting trauma. This dark chapter in U.S. history raises critical questions about civil liberties and during wartime.
Historical context of Executive Order 9066
Political and social climate
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- President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, responding to the attack and U.S. entry into World War II
- Pre-existing anti-Asian sentiment and racial prejudice in the United States, particularly on the West Coast, contributed to the order's implementation
- False perception of Japanese Americans as potential spies or saboteurs fueled support for the order among government officials and the general public
- Key figures advocated for and implemented the order
- Order justified under the guise of "military necessity"
- Later investigations revealed racism and economic motivations as significant factors
- Historical context included discriminatory policies that had already marginalized Japanese Americans
- (prohibited land ownership by )
- Immigration restrictions ()
Authorization and scope
- Order authorized the Secretary of War to designate "military areas" for exclusion
- Allowed for removal and incarceration of Japanese Americans
- Approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans affected
- Two-thirds were U.S. citizens
- Primarily impacted West Coast residents
Impact on Japanese American communities
Economic and social disruption
- Forced removal from homes led to significant economic losses
- Estimates range from $1-3 billion in 1940s currency
- Loss of property and businesses
- Many had to sell assets at a fraction of their value
- Some entrusted property to neighbors or friends, often never recovering it
- Disruption of community structures
- Religious institutions (, )
- Cultural organizations ()
- Educational and career opportunities severely limited
- Students forced to abandon studies
- Professionals lost established practices or businesses
Psychological and cultural impact
- Long-lasting psychological trauma
- Anxiety, depression, and (PTSD)
- Erosion of cultural ties
- Breakdown of traditional family structures
- Loss of language and cultural practices
- Climate of fear and suspicion created
- Increased discrimination and violence against Japanese Americans
- Affected those not directly incarcerated ()
- Shift in Japanese American identity and political consciousness
- Influenced future civil rights movements ()
- Led to community activism ()
Forced relocation and consequences
Relocation process
- Creation of along the West Coast
- Short notice given for evacuation
- Often only a few days to prepare
- Evacuees forced to hastily sell or store possessions
- Many suffered significant financial losses
- Assembly centers used as temporary holding facilities
- Often located at fairgrounds ()
- Racetracks ()
- Transportation to permanent concentration camps
- Often by train under military guard
- Long journeys in crowded conditions
Concentration camp conditions
- Ten major concentration camps established in remote areas across seven states
- (California)
- (California)
- (Idaho)
- Harsh living conditions
- Inadequate housing (tar paper barracks)
- Limited food options and poor quality
- Insufficient medical care
- Cramped living quarters with minimal privacy
- Families often shared single rooms
- Strict military oversight and curfews imposed
- Makeshift schools established
- Often understaffed and under-resourced
- Health issues arose due to poor conditions
- Outbreaks of diseases (influenza, dysentery)
- Mental health problems (depression, anxiety)
Constitutionality and ethics of Executive Order 9066
Legal challenges and precedents
- Supreme Court case (1944) upheld the order's constitutionality
- Set a controversial legal precedent
- Later criticized as one of the Court's greatest mistakes
- Order violated several constitutional rights
- Due process (5th Amendment)
- Equal protection under the law (14th Amendment)
- Protection against unreasonable search and seizure (4th Amendment)
- Later investigations revealed the order's unjustified nature
- Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (1980-1983)
- Concluded order was driven by "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership"
Ethical implications and legacy
- Targeting of a specific ethnic group raised serious ethical questions
- Racial profiling
- Balance between national security and civil liberties
- Highlighted the U.S. government's failure to protect minority rights during crisis
- addressed historical wrongs
- Formal apology for internment
- Provided reparations ($20,000 to each surviving internee)
- Legacy continues to inform contemporary debates
- Civil liberties during wartime
- Treatment of minority groups in times of national crisis (Muslim Americans post-9/11)
- Educational initiatives developed to prevent similar injustices
- Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles
- Manzanar National Historic Site
Key Terms to Review (38)
1924 Immigration Act: The 1924 Immigration Act was a significant piece of legislation in the United States that established national origin quotas, drastically limiting immigration from certain countries, particularly those in Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as Asia. This act aimed to preserve the racial and ethnic composition of the United States by favoring immigrants from Northern and Western European countries. Its repercussions were profound, leading to the exclusion of many potential immigrants and influencing patterns of migration and the demographics of the U.S. population for years to come.
Alien Land Laws: Alien Land Laws were a series of legislative measures enacted in the early 20th century in various states in the United States, aimed primarily at restricting land ownership by Asian immigrants, particularly Japanese Americans. These laws were part of a broader context of racial discrimination and economic competition, and they significantly impacted the lives of Asian immigrants by limiting their ability to acquire property and establish stable communities.
American Nationalism: American nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes pride in the United States and promotes the interests of the nation as a whole over those of individual groups. It often centers around ideals like democracy, liberty, and cultural heritage while fostering a sense of unity among Americans. This sense of identity can lead to exclusionary practices, particularly towards marginalized groups, reflecting a tension between inclusivity and national identity.
Apology legislation: Apology legislation refers to laws that allow individuals or entities to express remorse or regret for an action without the fear of legal repercussions or liability. This type of legislation is often enacted to encourage open communication and acknowledgment of past wrongs, especially in the context of historical injustices, allowing for a more conciliatory approach to healing and reconciliation.
Asian Immigrants: Asian immigrants are individuals who move from Asian countries to settle in other regions, particularly the United States. This term encompasses a diverse group of people, including those fleeing conflict, seeking economic opportunities, or reuniting with family. The experience of Asian immigrants has been shaped by various policies and societal attitudes, significantly influencing their integration and contributions to American society.
Attorney General Earl Warren: Earl Warren was the Attorney General of California from 1939 to 1943, before becoming the 14th Chief Justice of the United States. His tenure as Attorney General is notably connected to Executive Order 9066, which authorized the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, reflecting wartime hysteria and racial prejudice. Warren's later role as Chief Justice further shaped civil rights and liberties in America.
Buddhist Temples: Buddhist temples are sacred spaces dedicated to the practice of Buddhism, where individuals can engage in meditation, prayer, and community activities. These temples often serve as cultural centers for the local Buddhist community, particularly among immigrants, providing a sense of identity and continuity amidst the challenges faced in a new environment.
California: California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States, known for its diverse geography, vibrant culture, and significant economic influence. During World War II, California became a focal point for the implementation of Executive Order 9066, which authorized the forced relocation of Japanese Americans to internment camps, impacting thousands of lives and shaping the narrative of civil rights in America.
Christian Churches: Christian churches are places of worship and community for followers of Christianity, often serving as centers for spiritual guidance, education, and social services. During periods of crisis, such as the relocation of Japanese Americans due to Executive Order 9066, these churches played pivotal roles in providing support and resources to affected individuals and families, acting as safe havens and advocates for their rights.
Civil Liberties Act of 1988: The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 was a U.S. law that acknowledged and apologized for the injustices faced by Japanese Americans during World War II, specifically their forced relocation and internment. This act provided reparations to surviving internees and established a commission to review the events surrounding the internment, reflecting a critical re-evaluation of civil rights and government actions during wartime.
Displacement: Displacement refers to the forced movement of individuals or groups from their established homes or communities due to various factors, including political, social, or economic pressures. It often leads to a loss of identity, culture, and belonging, as people are uprooted from their familiar environments. This concept is crucial in understanding the experiences of marginalized groups, especially in relation to governmental policies and cultural expressions.
Executive Order 9066: Executive Order 9066 was a directive signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, which authorized the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. This order allowed military authorities to designate certain areas as exclusion zones and forcibly relocate individuals deemed a security risk, primarily targeting Japanese Americans on the West Coast. The order led to the establishment of internment camps where thousands of Japanese Americans faced significant hardships and discrimination.
Fred Korematsu: Fred Korematsu was an American civil rights activist who defied the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. He became a symbol of resistance against racial injustice and fought against Executive Order 9066, which led to the forced relocation and incarceration of thousands of Japanese Americans in concentration camps.
General John L. DeWitt: General John L. DeWitt was a prominent U.S. Army officer during World War II, best known for his role in implementing Executive Order 9066, which led to the forced relocation of Japanese Americans from the West Coast. He was a strong proponent of internment, arguing that it was necessary for national security, and he oversaw the establishment of the War Relocation Authority, which managed the internment camps where Japanese Americans were held.
Hawaiian Japanese Americans: Hawaiian Japanese Americans are individuals of Japanese descent who were born or have lived in Hawaii, forming a unique cultural community within the broader Asian American experience. This group played a significant role in Hawaii's economy and culture, especially during the early 20th century, and was particularly affected by events like World War II, when they faced discrimination and challenges related to Executive Order 9066.
J. Edgar Hoover: J. Edgar Hoover was the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the United States, serving from 1935 until his death in 1972. His leadership significantly shaped the FBI and its role in national security, particularly during World War II and the Cold War era, where he was known for his controversial surveillance tactics and efforts to monitor perceived subversive elements, including Japanese Americans during the time of Executive Order 9066.
Japanese American Citizens League: The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) is a civil rights organization founded in 1929 to advocate for the rights and welfare of Japanese Americans. The JACL emerged as a response to discrimination and prejudice faced by Japanese Americans, especially during World War II, when they were unjustly interned due to Executive Order 9066. The league played a crucial role in fighting for redress, supporting military service among Japanese Americans, and promoting community resilience.
Japanese American Internment: Japanese American internment refers to the forced relocation and incarceration of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans, most of whom were U.S. citizens, during World War II. This drastic measure was primarily driven by racial prejudice and wartime hysteria following the attack on Pearl Harbor, leading to the establishment of internment camps across the United States.
Japanese Americans: Japanese Americans are individuals of Japanese ancestry who were born or settled in the United States. Their history is marked by significant events such as forced relocation during World War II and the ongoing challenges related to identity, discrimination, and socioeconomic status in American society.
Japanese Language Schools: Japanese language schools were educational institutions established primarily for Japanese American children in the early 20th century. These schools played a crucial role in preserving Japanese language and culture among immigrant families, especially during the tumultuous times of World War II and the forced relocation under Executive Order 9066. As many Japanese Americans faced discrimination and loss of cultural identity, these schools served as a refuge where students could learn their heritage and maintain connections to their roots.
Korematsu v. United States: Korematsu v. United States was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1944 that upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. The ruling came in response to Executive Order 9066, which authorized the forced relocation and incarceration of individuals of Japanese descent in camps across the United States, reflecting the government's wartime fears of espionage and sabotage. This case has become a critical example in discussions about civil liberties, racial discrimination, and government overreach during times of national crisis.
Manzanar: Manzanar was one of the ten Japanese American internment camps established during World War II, where over 10,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated and incarcerated. The camp became a symbol of the injustice faced by Japanese Americans as a result of Executive Order 9066, which authorized their internment in response to wartime fears. Life at Manzanar was characterized by harsh conditions, but also by resilience and community-building among the internees.
Military exclusion zones: Military exclusion zones are designated areas where certain individuals or groups are prohibited from entering, often established during times of conflict or national security concerns. These zones were notably implemented during World War II in the United States as part of the government's response to perceived threats, particularly against Japanese Americans. The establishment of these zones led to significant consequences, including the forced relocation and internment of thousands of Japanese American citizens and residents.
Minidoka: Minidoka was one of ten Japanese American internment camps established during World War II, located in southern Idaho. It served as a relocation center for over 9,000 Japanese Americans who were forcibly removed from their homes on the West Coast due to Executive Order 9066. The camp represents the broader historical injustice faced by Japanese Americans during the war, highlighting issues of civil liberties and racial prejudice.
Oregon: Oregon, in the context of Executive Order 9066 and relocation, refers to the state that played a significant role during World War II, particularly regarding the internment of Japanese Americans. This order led to the forced relocation of thousands of Japanese Americans from their homes on the West Coast, including those in Oregon, to internment camps across the United States. The state's geography and its history of immigration made it a focal point for discussions about civil liberties and racial prejudice during this turbulent time.
Pearl Harbor: Pearl Harbor refers to the U.S. naval base located on the island of Oahu in Hawaii, which was attacked by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941. This surprise military strike led to significant destruction of the U.S. Pacific Fleet and marked the United States' entry into World War II. The attack had far-reaching consequences, including the implementation of Executive Order 9066, which resulted in the relocation and internment of Japanese Americans.
Post-traumatic stress disorder: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. It can cause severe anxiety, flashbacks, nightmares, and uncontrollable thoughts about the event, often leading to difficulties in daily functioning. This condition is especially relevant for individuals who have endured significant upheaval, such as forced relocation and the trauma of war, reflecting the long-lasting impact of these experiences on mental health.
Puyallup, Washington: Puyallup, Washington is a city located in Pierce County that became significant during World War II as the site of one of the internment camps for Japanese Americans. This camp was officially known as the Puyallup Assembly Center, where thousands of Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated from their homes due to Executive Order 9066, marking a dark chapter in American history related to civil rights and wartime policies.
Racial discrimination: Racial discrimination refers to the unfair treatment of individuals based on their race or ethnicity, often manifesting through unequal opportunities and systemic inequality. This concept has historically affected various immigrant groups, leading to laws and social practices that marginalized certain racial and ethnic communities.
Racial Prejudice: Racial prejudice refers to preconceived negative attitudes, beliefs, and feelings directed toward individuals or groups based on their race or ethnicity. This type of prejudice can manifest in various forms, including discrimination, stereotyping, and social exclusion. In the context of wartime policies and actions, racial prejudice significantly influenced decisions such as the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, highlighting how deep-seated biases can lead to systemic injustices.
Redress Movement: The redress movement was a social and political effort aimed at seeking justice and reparations for Japanese Americans who were wrongfully interned during World War II. This movement emerged in response to the injustices faced by these individuals, advocating for acknowledgment, apology, and compensation from the U.S. government for the harms caused by Executive Order 9066, which led to forced relocation and internment.
Relocation: Relocation refers to the forced movement of individuals or groups from one place to another, often due to governmental policies or social pressures. In the context of World War II, this term is prominently associated with the internment of Japanese Americans following Executive Order 9066, which authorized the military to designate certain areas as military zones and remove individuals deemed a threat, primarily targeting Japanese Americans on the West Coast.
Santa Anita, California: Santa Anita, California, is a location that became one of the most notable internment camps during World War II, where Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated following Executive Order 9066. This site exemplified the impact of this order, as thousands of Japanese Americans were detained in an environment marked by loss of freedom and uncertainty.
Tule Lake: Tule Lake was one of ten Japanese American internment camps established during World War II, specifically designed to detain 'disloyal' Japanese Americans who were deemed a security threat. Located in Northern California, it initially served as a relocation center for Japanese Americans but later became a segregation center for those classified as disloyal, highlighting the government's harsh response to perceived threats during wartime.
War Relocation Authority: The War Relocation Authority (WRA) was a U.S. government agency created in 1942 to oversee the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. This organization was responsible for the relocation of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans from their homes to internment camps, justified by the government as a national security measure following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The WRA managed the construction and administration of these camps, aiming to provide for the daily needs of internees, while also dealing with the broader implications of civil rights violations and racial prejudice during wartime.
Washington: In the context of Executive Order 9066 and the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II, Washington refers to the federal government and its decision-making processes that led to the internment of over 120,000 Japanese Americans. This action was fueled by wartime hysteria, racial prejudice, and political pressures, resulting in a significant violation of civil liberties under the guise of national security.
World War II: World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations divided into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war had significant implications for Asian Americans, as it led to heightened anti-Asian sentiment and resulted in policies like forced relocation that directly impacted Japanese Americans and their communities.
Xenophobia: Xenophobia is the fear or hatred of people from other countries or cultures, often manifesting as discrimination, prejudice, and hostility. This term reflects societal attitudes that lead to exclusionary practices and policies, impacting immigration and the experiences of minority groups within a nation. It connects deeply with historical events where specific communities faced systematic oppression due to their perceived 'foreignness' or cultural differences.