Glossary

4.1 Archaeological Survey Techniques

5 min read•july 22, 2024

Archaeological surveys are crucial for discovering and documenting ancient sites. They involve various techniques like pedestrian surveys, aerial surveys, and geophysical methods. Each approach has unique advantages and limitations, helping archaeologists piece together the past.

and processes are key components of archaeological surveys. These methods allow researchers to gather data from a distance, identify potential sites, and systematically record findings. Understanding these techniques is essential for effective archaeological fieldwork.

Archaeological Survey Techniques

Types of archaeological surveys

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  • Pedestrian surveys involve archaeologists systematically walking over a study area to identify and record archaeological sites and artifacts on the surface
    • Typically used for small to medium-sized areas (up to several square kilometers)
    • Allows for detailed observation and recording of surface features and artifacts, such as stone tools, pottery sherds, or architectural remains
  • Aerial surveys are conducted using aircraft, drones, or satellites to capture images of the landscape from above
    • Useful for efficiently covering large areas (hundreds or thousands of square kilometers) and identifying landscape features, such as earthworks, roads, or buried structures
    • Provide a broad overview of the study area and its archaeological potential, but may miss smaller features or artifacts not visible from the air
  • Geophysical surveys use various technologies to detect and map subsurface features without the need for excavation
    • Common methods include:
      • detects magnetic anomalies caused by buried features, such as hearths, kilns, or iron objects
      • uses high-frequency radar pulses to create images of subsurface features, such as walls, floors, or burial chambers
      • measures the electrical resistance of the soil to identify buried features, such as stone foundations, ditches, or middens, based on differences in soil moisture and composition

Principles of remote sensing

  • Remote sensing involves collecting data about an object or area from a distance, without physical contact, using various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as visible light, infrared, or radar
  • Data can be collected from a variety of platforms, including satellites (Landsat, Sentinel), aircraft (planes, helicopters), or drones (quadcopters, fixed-wing UAVs)
  • Remote sensing data can provide information about the physical and chemical properties of the Earth's surface, such as vegetation health, soil moisture, or thermal signatures
  • Archaeological applications of remote sensing include:
    • Identifying and mapping archaeological sites and features based on surface indicators, such as crop marks, soil marks, or shadow marks
    • Monitoring site conditions and changes over time, such as erosion, looting, or urban development
    • Providing context for archaeological sites within the broader landscape, such as ancient land use patterns, trade routes, or settlement systems
    • Guiding targeted ground-based surveys or excavations to areas of high archaeological potential or interest

Site identification process

  1. Conduct background research to gather information about the study area, including previous archaeological investigations, historical records, and environmental data
  2. Develop a predictive model to identify areas of high archaeological potential based on factors such as topography, water sources, soil types, and known site patterns
  3. Conduct a of the study area using appropriate techniques (pedestrian, aerial, geophysical) to identify potential archaeological sites based on surface indicators, such as artifacts, features, or landscape anomalies
  4. Record the location, extent, and characteristics of identified sites using , site maps, photographs, and standardized site recording forms or databases
  5. Assign unique site numbers or codes to each identified site for future reference and management
  6. Collect and record diagnostic artifacts or samples from each site for further analysis and dating
  7. Assess the significance and research potential of each site based on factors such as integrity, rarity, and ability to address important research questions
  8. Recommend further investigation or protection measures for significant sites, if necessary, such as detailed mapping, excavation, or nomination to the National Register of Historic Places
  9. Submit completed site records to the appropriate state or national databases, such as the State Historic Preservation Office or the National Archaeological Database, for long-term curation and access by researchers and land managers

Survey techniques: advantages vs limitations

  • Pedestrian surveys:
    • Advantages:
      • Allow for detailed observation and recording of surface features and artifacts, providing high-resolution data on site characteristics and artifact distributions
      • Relatively low cost and minimal equipment requirements, making them accessible to a wide range of projects and budgets
    • Limitations:
      • Time-consuming for large areas, requiring significant labor and logistical support
      • May miss subsurface features or deeply buried sites that have no surface expression
      • Effectiveness can be limited by vegetation cover (dense forests), surface visibility (plowed fields), or post-depositional processes (erosion, development)
  • Aerial surveys:
    • Advantages:
      • Cover large areas efficiently, reducing survey time and costs compared to ground-based methods
      • Provide a broad overview of the landscape and its features, allowing for the identification of large-scale patterns and relationships
      • Can identify sites or features not visible from the ground, such as subtle topographic changes or vegetation anomalies
    • Limitations:
      • May miss smaller features or artifacts that are not visible from the air, particularly in areas with dense vegetation or complex topography
      • Require specialized equipment (aircraft, cameras) and expertise (pilots, photographers), which can be costly and logistically challenging
      • Effectiveness can be limited by weather conditions (clouds, haze), vegetation cover (leaf-on vs. leaf-off), or the timing of data acquisition (seasonal changes)
  • Geophysical surveys:
    • Advantages:
      • Provide a non-invasive way to detect and map subsurface features without the need for excavation, preserving the archaeological record for future research
      • Generate detailed information about the spatial distribution and characteristics of buried features, such as the depth, size, and shape of anomalies
      • Can guide targeted excavations or inform site protection strategies, such as avoidance or mitigation measures
    • Limitations:
      • Require specialized equipment (magnetometers, GPR, resistivity meters) and expertise (geophysicists, data processors), which can be costly and not widely available
      • Data processing and interpretation can be complex and time-consuming, requiring significant computing power and skilled analysts
      • Effectiveness can be limited by soil conditions (clay, bedrock), moisture content (wet vs. dry), or the depth of buried features (signal attenuation with depth)

Key Terms to Review (25)

Access Issues: Access issues refer to the challenges and barriers that affect the ability of researchers and archaeologists to reach archaeological sites for survey and excavation. These challenges can arise from legal, physical, social, or economic factors, impacting the effectiveness and inclusivity of archaeological work. Understanding access issues is crucial for ensuring that all potential archaeological resources can be adequately explored and documented.
Aerial survey: An aerial survey is a method of collecting data and mapping archaeological sites from an elevated perspective, typically using aircraft or drones. This technique allows archaeologists to observe and record large areas quickly, identifying features that may not be visible from the ground. By capturing images and data from above, aerial surveys enhance the understanding of site layouts, structures, and landscape contexts, making them an essential tool in archaeological survey techniques.
C. Brian Rose: C. Brian Rose is a prominent archaeologist known for his extensive work in the field of archaeology, particularly focusing on the ancient city of Troy and archaeological survey techniques. His contributions have significantly influenced the understanding of urban development and cultural interactions in the ancient world. Rose's research often emphasizes innovative survey methods, which enhance the accuracy and efficiency of archaeological investigations.
Ceremonial sites: Ceremonial sites are locations specifically designed or used for rituals, ceremonies, and significant events within a culture or society. These sites often hold religious or spiritual importance and can include temples, altars, or even natural features like mountains or caves that serve as places of worship or communal gathering. Their study helps archaeologists understand the social and cultural practices of past civilizations.
Contextual analysis: Contextual analysis is the process of examining artifacts, features, and sites within their environmental, cultural, and temporal contexts to gain a deeper understanding of their significance. This method emphasizes the relationships between items and their surroundings, allowing archaeologists to interpret the meaning and use of objects in historical and cultural frameworks.
Cultural Resource Management: Cultural resource management (CRM) is the practice of preserving and managing cultural heritage sites, artifacts, and landscapes to ensure their protection for future generations. It combines archaeological research with legal frameworks and community engagement to assess, preserve, and interpret cultural resources, making it essential in the broader field of archaeology and heritage studies.
Electrical resistivity: Electrical resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. In archaeology, this property is used to identify subsurface features and artifacts by measuring variations in electrical resistance in the ground. It is particularly useful in non-invasive surveys, allowing archaeologists to map potential sites without disturbing the soil.
Geophysical Survey: A geophysical survey is a non-invasive method used to assess subsurface conditions, typically involving the measurement of physical properties like magnetic, gravitational, or electrical fields. This technique allows archaeologists to locate and map archaeological features without the need for excavation, making it a valuable tool in identifying sites and planning for conservation efforts.
GPS: Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that provides accurate location and time information anywhere on Earth. This technology is crucial for archaeological survey techniques and site mapping, allowing archaeologists to precisely document the locations of artifacts, features, and entire sites in real-time, enhancing their ability to analyze spatial relationships within archaeological contexts.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR): Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a non-invasive geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. It sends high-frequency radio waves into the ground and measures the reflected signals to detect and map structures, layers, or objects below the surface. This technology is crucial in archaeological survey techniques as it allows researchers to identify potential sites and features without the need for excavation, preserving the integrity of the site while providing valuable information about its composition and structure.
Habitation sites: Habitation sites are locations where people have lived and carried out daily activities, often leaving behind artifacts and other cultural remains. These sites provide critical insights into past human behavior, social structures, and environmental interactions. Understanding habitation sites helps archaeologists to reconstruct past lifeways and the development of societies over time.
Land use conflict: Land use conflict refers to the competition and disputes over the allocation and management of land resources, often arising when different stakeholders have conflicting interests or goals. This can occur between various parties such as developers, conservationists, local communities, and government entities, leading to tensions and challenges in making decisions about land utilization. Understanding these conflicts is crucial for archaeologists as they navigate the implications of land use decisions on archaeological sites and cultural heritage preservation.
Magnetometry: Magnetometry is a geophysical survey technique used in archaeology that measures the Earth's magnetic field to detect and map buried archaeological features. This method identifies anomalies in magnetic fields caused by human-made structures, such as walls, ditches, or hearths, making it invaluable for locating sites without intrusive excavation. Its non-invasive nature connects it closely to the advancements in archaeological methods and techniques, enhancing the efficiency of archaeological surveys.
Pedestrian Survey: A pedestrian survey is an archaeological method that involves systematically walking over a designated area to identify and document surface artifacts and features. This technique allows archaeologists to gather data on the distribution of materials across the landscape, making it a valuable tool for assessing site locations and understanding past human activity.
Photographic documentation: Photographic documentation refers to the use of photography to record and preserve the details of archaeological sites, artifacts, and excavation processes. This method is crucial for creating a visual record that can support analysis and interpretation, while also serving as a means to share findings with both the academic community and the public. By capturing images of various elements in their context, photographic documentation aids in understanding the spatial relationships and condition of the archaeological evidence.
Reconnaissance Survey: A reconnaissance survey is a preliminary investigation aimed at identifying and assessing archaeological sites and resources over a broad area. This method is crucial for archaeologists to gather initial data, locate potential excavation sites, and understand the landscape before conducting more intensive research. It typically involves walking the terrain, recording surface artifacts, and noting geographical features that may indicate the presence of cultural materials.
Remote Sensing: Remote sensing refers to the collection of data about an area or object from a distance, typically using satellite or aerial imagery. This technique is essential in archaeology for identifying and mapping archaeological sites without physical excavation, allowing researchers to analyze large areas quickly and efficiently while minimizing environmental disturbance.
Shovel test pits: Shovel test pits are a systematic archaeological survey method used to assess the presence of artifacts and features within a specific area by excavating small, strategically placed holes in the ground. This technique helps archaeologists gather data on subsurface conditions and determine if further excavation is warranted. By analyzing the findings from these shallow excavations, researchers can gain insights into site distribution, density of artifacts, and potential cultural significance of an area.
Site cataloging: Site cataloging is the systematic process of documenting archaeological sites, including their locations, characteristics, and findings, to create a comprehensive database for research and analysis. This process is crucial for understanding the historical and cultural significance of sites, aiding in preservation efforts, and facilitating future archaeological work. Proper cataloging ensures that data is organized and accessible, enabling archaeologists to draw connections between different sites and their artifacts.
Site identification: Site identification is the process of locating and recognizing archaeological sites based on various indicators, including topography, historical records, and environmental factors. This critical step in archaeology helps researchers determine where to focus their excavations and investigations, guiding them to areas with the potential for significant discoveries. By employing systematic survey techniques, archaeologists can map out the distribution of cultural remains and assess the archaeological potential of a given area.
Site Integrity: Site integrity refers to the preservation and authenticity of an archaeological site, ensuring that the context and associations of artifacts, features, and structures remain intact. This concept is vital as it influences how archaeologists interpret the past, maintaining the site's historical significance while safeguarding it from damage or alteration during excavations or surveys.
Stratigraphy: Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification), which is essential in understanding the chronological sequence of archaeological deposits. By examining the arrangement and distribution of layers, archaeologists can establish a timeline for human activity, uncover cultural practices, and understand environmental changes over time.
Systematic Survey: A systematic survey is a methodical approach used in archaeology to locate and map archaeological sites within a designated area. This technique involves evenly spaced sampling, ensuring that data is collected consistently and comprehensively to form an accurate representation of the archaeological landscape. By employing systematic survey methods, archaeologists can identify patterns in human activity over time and determine the distribution of artifacts across a region.
Transect Sampling: Transect sampling is a method used in archaeological surveys to systematically collect data across a specific area by establishing straight lines (transects) through the landscape. This technique allows researchers to assess the distribution of artifacts, features, and ecofacts by documenting what is found along these predetermined paths. It is particularly useful for understanding spatial patterns and site density across larger regions.
William James Whittlesey: William James Whittlesey was an American archaeologist and one of the pioneers in archaeological survey techniques, particularly known for his contributions to the development of systematic field methods in archaeology. His work emphasized the importance of meticulous data collection and mapping during surveys, which have greatly influenced modern practices in the field. Whittlesey's methodologies helped establish a more scientific approach to understanding archaeological sites and landscapes.
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