2.2 Development of Scientific Archaeology in the 19th Century
4 min read•july 22, 2024
Scientific archaeology emerged in the 19th century, revolutionizing how we study the past. Key figures like Thomsen, Boucher de Perthes, and Darwin introduced groundbreaking ideas that shaped the field.
This shift from antiquarianism to scientific inquiry brought new methods like and . It also reflected broader intellectual trends of the time, including the Enlightenment and evolutionary theory.
Key Figures and Events in the Development of Scientific Archaeology
Key figures in scientific archaeology
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- Developed the categorizing human prehistory into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age based on the primary materials used for tools and weapons in each period
- Established the concept of relative dating, which allows archaeologists to determine the chronological order of past events or artifacts without knowing their absolute ages
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- Discovered ancient stone tools (hand axes) in the Somme Valley, France, providing evidence for the existence of early humans in the region
- Argued for the existence of prehistoric humans, challenging the prevailing view of a short human history based on biblical chronology
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- Geologist who proposed the principles of uniformitarianism, which states that the same geological processes operating today have been at work throughout Earth's history, and gradualism, the idea that these processes operate slowly over long periods
- His work influenced the understanding of the Earth's age and the antiquity of humans, providing a framework for the study of human prehistory
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- Developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, which explains how species change over time through the inheritance of beneficial traits
- His ideas contributed to the understanding of human origins and the importance of studying the past to comprehend the evolution of human societies and cultures
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- Coined the terms "Paleolithic" (Old Stone Age) and "Neolithic" (New Stone Age) to further refine the Stone Age period based on the advancement of stone tool technologies
- Promoted the use of scientific methods in archaeology, such as stratigraphy and typology, to systematically study and interpret the material remains of past human activities
Principles and Methods of Scientific Archaeology
Principles of scientific archaeology
- Stratigraphy
- The study of layered deposits (strata) and the principle that, in undisturbed contexts, older layers are found beneath younger layers
- Used to establish relative chronologies of archaeological sites and understand the sequence of events or occupations
- Typology
- The classification of artifacts based on their physical characteristics (shape, size, material) and attributes (decoration, function)
- Helps in establishing chronologies, tracing cultural changes over time, and identifying regional variations or cultural interactions
- Cross-dating
- The practice of dating artifacts or sites by comparing them with similar objects from other contexts with known dates, such as written records or well-dated sites
- Enables the establishment of more accurate chronologies and the synchronization of cultural developments across different regions
- Systematic excavation
- The careful and methodical excavation of archaeological sites, recording the precise context (location, depth, associated artifacts) and provenance (origin or source) of artifacts
- Allows for a more comprehensive understanding of past human activities, behaviors, and site formation processes
Sociocultural and Intellectual Contexts
Context for archaeological science
- Enlightenment
- An intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe that emphasized reason, empiricism (knowledge based on observation and experimentation), and scientific inquiry
- Encouraged the systematic study of the natural world and human history, laying the foundation for the development of scientific archaeology
- Industrial Revolution
- A period of rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and innovations in Europe and North America during the late 18th and 19th centuries
- Facilitated the development of new archaeological methods (improved excavation tools, transportation) and increased interest in the origins of human societies and the progress of civilization
- Colonialism and imperialism
- European expansion and the establishment of colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas during the 19th century
- Exposed archaeologists to a wider range of ancient cultures and artifacts, fueling interest in understanding the diversity of human societies and their development over time
- Evolutionary theory
- Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, published in "On the Origin of Species" (1859)
- Challenged traditional views of human origins and antiquity based on religious beliefs, providing a scientific framework for understanding the biological and of humans over time
Significance of the Shift from Antiquarianism to Scientific Archaeology
Antiquarianism vs scientific archaeology
- From treasure hunting to systematic study
- Antiquarians primarily focused on collecting artifacts for their aesthetic or monetary value, often with little regard for their context or cultural significance
- Scientific archaeology emphasized the systematic recording and study of the context, provenance, and cultural significance of artifacts to understand past human societies and behaviors
- Development of chronological frameworks
- Antiquarians lacked a clear understanding of the temporal relationships between artifacts and cultures, often leading to speculative or inaccurate interpretations
- Scientific archaeology established relative and absolute dating methods (stratigraphy, typology, cross-dating, ), allowing for the reconstruction of cultural sequences and the establishment of more accurate chronologies
- Interdisciplinary approach
- Scientific archaeology incorporated knowledge and techniques from other disciplines, such as geology (stratigraphy, site formation processes), biology (faunal and floral remains), and anthropology (cultural evolution, social organization)
- This holistic approach provided a more comprehensive understanding of past human societies, their environments, and their interactions
- Foundation for modern archaeology
- The principles and methods developed during the emergence of scientific archaeology in the 19th century laid the groundwork for the discipline as we know it today
- Subsequent generations of archaeologists have built upon and refined these foundations, leading to new discoveries, technologies (remote sensing, GIS), and insights into human history and cultural diversity
Key Terms to Review (13)
American Antiquarian Society: The American Antiquarian Society is a research institution founded in 1812 in Worcester, Massachusetts, dedicated to the study and preservation of American history, culture, and literature. It played a pivotal role in the development of scientific archaeology in the 19th century by collecting artifacts and promoting scholarly research that laid the groundwork for modern archaeological practices in the United States.
Charles Darwin: Charles Darwin was an English naturalist and biologist best known for his theory of evolution through natural selection. His groundbreaking work, 'On the Origin of Species,' published in 1859, introduced concepts that challenged traditional views of life and laid the foundation for modern biology. Darwin's ideas on evolution had a significant influence on various fields, including archaeology, by encouraging a scientific approach to understanding human history and the development of cultures over time.
Charles Lyell: Charles Lyell was a British geologist who is best known for his work on the principles of geology and for promoting the idea of uniformitarianism, which posits that the Earth's features were shaped by continuous and observable processes over long periods. His ideas laid a foundation for scientific archaeology in the 19th century, emphasizing the importance of understanding geological time and stratigraphy in interpreting human history.
Christian Jürgensen Thomsen: Christian Jürgensen Thomsen was a Danish archaeologist best known for developing the three-age system, which classifies human history into three distinct periods: Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. This groundbreaking framework revolutionized the way archaeologists understood and organized past societies, laying the foundation for modern archaeological methodologies and interpretations.
Cultural Evolution: Cultural evolution refers to the changes and developments in human culture over time, encompassing the ways societies adapt, innovate, and transform their beliefs, practices, and technologies. This process reflects how cultures can shift and evolve in response to environmental challenges, social structures, and technological advancements, ultimately shaping human behavior and social organization. Understanding cultural evolution helps explain the dynamics of past societies and their interactions with their environments.
Darwin's On the Origin of Species: Darwin's On the Origin of Species is a groundbreaking scientific work published in 1859 that introduced the theory of evolution through natural selection. This book fundamentally changed the understanding of biology and the development of species, influencing various fields including archaeology, where it provided a framework for interpreting human development and cultural evolution over time.
Jacques Boucher de Perthes: Jacques Boucher de Perthes was a French archaeologist and paleontologist known for his pioneering work in establishing the antiquity of humanity through the discovery of stone tools alongside the bones of extinct animals in the Somme River Valley. His contributions played a crucial role in moving archaeology towards a more scientific discipline during the 19th century, challenging prevailing views about human history and its timeline.
John Lubbock: John Lubbock was a British banker, politician, and pioneering archaeologist who is best known for his work in developing scientific archaeology in the 19th century. His contributions were significant in establishing archaeology as a scientific discipline, emphasizing the importance of systematic excavation and analysis of artifacts, particularly through his influential book, 'Prehistoric Times.' Lubbock's ideas helped to promote the understanding of human prehistory and the evolution of societies.
Radiocarbon dating: Radiocarbon dating is a scientific method used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the amount of carbon-14 remaining in a sample. This technique revolutionized archaeology by providing a way to date artifacts and remains, linking them to specific historical periods and enhancing our understanding of human history.
Society for American Archaeology: The Society for American Archaeology (SAA) is a professional organization dedicated to advancing archaeological research, education, and stewardship in North America. Founded in 1934, the SAA fosters collaboration among archaeologists and promotes the responsible management of cultural resources. Its influence can be seen in how archaeology has evolved, particularly in addressing repatriation and cultural property issues.
Stratigraphy: Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification), which is essential in understanding the chronological sequence of archaeological deposits. By examining the arrangement and distribution of layers, archaeologists can establish a timeline for human activity, uncover cultural practices, and understand environmental changes over time.
Three-age system: The three-age system is a framework for understanding human prehistory, which categorizes the development of human societies into three distinct periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. This system was pivotal in the advancement of archaeological theory in the 19th century, as it provided a chronological framework for analyzing artifacts and human behavior throughout different technological stages, marking a shift towards a more scientific approach in archaeology.
Typology: Typology is the systematic classification of artifacts or features based on shared characteristics, allowing archaeologists to organize and analyze material culture. This classification helps in understanding cultural and chronological contexts, as it can reveal patterns of behavior, technological development, and social organization within past societies.