13.1 Models of Trade and Exchange in Archaeology
3 min read•july 22, 2024
Trade and exchange models in archaeology reveal how societies interact and distribute resources. From reciprocal gift-giving in small groups to market-based systems in complex civilizations, these models show how economic structures evolve alongside social and political development.
Understanding trade models helps archaeologists piece together ancient social dynamics. By examining exchange patterns, we can uncover power structures, technological advancements, and cultural connections that shaped past societies and continue to influence our world today.
Models of Trade and Exchange
Models of archaeological exchange
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- involves the exchange of goods or services between individuals or groups based on social obligations and relationships, often including gift-giving and ceremonial exchanges (potlatch ceremonies) typically occurring in small-scale societies with limited specialization
- involves the collection of goods or resources by a central authority (chiefs, kings) which then redistributes the goods to the community, often associated with chiefdoms and early states (Inca Empire) and can be used to maintain social hierarchy and political control
- involves the exchange of goods or services based on supply and demand with prices determined by market forces, requires a standardized medium of exchange (currency, coins) and is associated with complex societies and specialized production (Roman Empire)
Contexts for trade models
- Applicability of models depends on the social, economic, and political organization of the society
- Reciprocal exchange more common in small-scale, kin-based societies (hunter-gatherers)
- Redistributive exchange often found in chiefdoms and early states ()
- Market exchange prevalent in complex societies with specialized production (ancient Greece)
- Limitations of models include being idealizations that may not fully capture the complexity of past exchange systems, incomplete or ambiguous archaeological evidence making it difficult to determine the exact nature of exchange, and the possibility of multiple forms of exchange coexisting within a single society ()
- Important to consider the specific archaeological context when applying models, including:
- Environmental factors such as resource availability and distribution ( in Mesoamerica)
- Technological factors such as the level of craft specialization and transportation infrastructure ()
- Social and political factors such as the presence of social hierarchies and the role of elites in controlling exchange (Mesopotamian city-states)
Social, Economic, and Political Implications
Implications of exchange modes
- Social implications of exchange include creating and maintaining social bonds and obligations, gift-giving and ceremonial exchange reinforcing social hierarchies and power structures (), and the control of exchange networks being a source of social prestige and influence ()
- Economic implications include different modes of exchange affecting the distribution of wealth and resources within a society, specialization and division of labor developing in response to the demands of exchange systems (Medieval guilds), and the growth of trade and exchange stimulating economic development and the emergence of new technologies (, )
- Political implications include the control of exchange networks being a source of political power and authority, elites using their control over exchange to maintain their position and influence (), and the development of market exchange leading to the emergence of new political institutions (, )
Gift-giving in social structures
- Gift-giving as a means of creating and maintaining social bonds with gifts creating obligations and expectations of reciprocity () and the exchange of gifts establishing and reinforcing social hierarchies ()
- Ceremonial exchange in the context of rituals and celebrations involves the exchange of valuable or symbolic items during ceremonies () which can legitimize social and political authority
- Elites may use the distribution of gifts to create networks of loyalty and obligation and the control of valuable or exotic items can be a source of prestige and influence (Egyptian pharaohs)
- Gift-giving and ceremonial exchange play a role in the formation of alliances and political relationships with the exchange of gifts between leaders or groups establishing political alliances () and ceremonial exchanges being used to negotiate peace treaties or resolve conflicts ()
Key Terms to Review (24)
Astrolabe: An astrolabe is an ancient instrument used for solving problems related to time and the position of the stars and planets. It played a crucial role in navigation and astronomy, allowing users to measure angles and determine latitude and longitude, which is key in understanding trade routes and exchange networks in history.
Aztec Tribute System: The Aztec Tribute System was a complex economic and political framework that required subjugated territories to pay tribute to the Aztec Empire in the form of goods, services, and labor. This system was crucial for maintaining the empire's wealth, power, and social hierarchy, as it provided essential resources for the capital city of Tenochtitlan and its elite class.
Calumet Ceremony: The calumet ceremony is a traditional ritual among various Indigenous peoples of North America involving the ceremonial smoking of a peace pipe, or calumet, as a means of establishing social bonds and promoting diplomatic relations. This practice serves not only as a form of communication but also as a symbol of respect, unity, and the establishment of peaceful intentions between different tribes or groups.
Compass: A compass is a navigational instrument that shows direction relative to the Earth's magnetic poles. In archaeology, compasses are essential for accurately mapping sites, recording the orientation of artifacts, and understanding trade routes and exchange systems by providing spatial orientation in the field.
Cultural Ecology: Cultural ecology is the study of how human cultures adapt to their environments, considering the interplay between cultural practices and ecological systems. This concept highlights the ways in which cultural behavior is influenced by environmental factors and how those behaviors, in turn, impact the environment. By understanding this relationship, researchers can gain insights into past societies and their adaptations, offering valuable perspectives on social organization, resource use, and environmental change.
East India Company: The East India Company was a British trading corporation established in 1600 to exploit trade in the East Indies, primarily focusing on the lucrative spice trade. This company played a pivotal role in establishing British colonial rule in India and other parts of Asia, which profoundly influenced global trade dynamics and economic relationships during its operation.
Hanseatic League: The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern and Central Europe, active from the 13th to the 17th centuries. It played a crucial role in promoting trade and economic cooperation among its member cities, leading to increased prosperity and influence across the region.
Indus Valley Civilization: The Indus Valley Civilization was an advanced urban culture that thrived around 2600 to 1900 BCE in the northwestern regions of South Asia, primarily in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India. Known for its sophisticated city planning, including well-organized streets and drainage systems, it represents a significant chapter in the study of ancient civilizations and their complex societal structures.
Iroquois Confederacy: The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee or Six Nations, is a historically significant alliance of Native American tribes in northeastern North America. Formed to promote peace and cooperation among the member tribes, the Confederacy played a crucial role in trade, diplomacy, and military strategies against external threats, influencing both indigenous politics and European colonial relations.
Karl Polanyi: Karl Polanyi was a Hungarian economic historian and social theorist known for his critical analysis of market economies and the impact of economic systems on societies. His work, particularly 'The Great Transformation,' emphasizes the relationship between economy and society, arguing that economic exchanges are embedded in social contexts rather than governed solely by market forces.
Kula ring: The kula ring is a ceremonial exchange system practiced by the Trobriand Islanders in Papua New Guinea, where valuable shell necklaces and armlets are exchanged in a network of islands. This intricate system of trade is not just about the items themselves but also involves social relationships and status, illustrating how trade can be a form of social bonding and cultural expression.
Lewis Binford: Lewis Binford was a pioneering American archaeologist known for his role in developing the New Archaeology movement, which emphasized scientific methods and theoretical frameworks in archaeological research. His work connected archaeological practices with anthropological theories, focusing on understanding human behavior and cultural evolution through material remains.
Market exchange: Market exchange refers to a system where goods and services are traded through transactions that typically involve a mutual agreement on price and value. This type of exchange is characterized by impersonal, monetary transactions that occur in designated spaces, known as markets, and often involve competition among sellers and buyers. Understanding market exchange is essential to grasp the dynamics of economic systems in archaeological contexts.
Material culture analysis: Material culture analysis is the study of objects created or used by a society to understand its cultural practices, beliefs, and social structures. This approach focuses on the relationship between people and their material belongings, highlighting how artifacts reflect trade, exchange systems, and cultural interactions among different groups.
Mayan Civilization: The Mayan Civilization was an advanced Mesoamerican culture that flourished in present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador from around 2000 BC to the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century. Known for its remarkable achievements in architecture, mathematics, astronomy, and a complex writing system, the civilization left a lasting legacy on trade, exchange, and rituals.
Moka exchange: Moka exchange is a traditional system of gift-giving practiced by certain Melanesian societies, particularly in Papua New Guinea. In this cultural practice, individuals or groups give large quantities of goods, often pigs, to their rivals or allies as a way to establish and strengthen social ties, demonstrate status, and create a cycle of reciprocity. This complex system highlights the importance of social relationships in trade and exchange, illustrating how economic practices are intertwined with cultural values.
Northwest coast potlatch: The northwest coast potlatch is a ceremonial feast among Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, where wealth and resources are redistributed as a display of status and social cohesion. This practice involves the giving away of gifts and food to guests, reinforcing social hierarchies and community bonds while simultaneously acting as a form of economic exchange within the cultural context.
Obsidian trade: Obsidian trade refers to the exchange of obsidian, a naturally occurring volcanic glass used for making tools and weapons, among ancient societies. This trade played a crucial role in the development of social and economic relationships between different cultures, influencing technological advancements and resource distribution across regions.
Phoenician Traders: Phoenician traders were skilled merchants and navigators from the ancient civilization of Phoenicia, which flourished between 1500 and 300 BCE along the Mediterranean coast in present-day Lebanon and parts of Syria and Israel. They are renowned for their extensive trade networks and seafaring capabilities, connecting various cultures and facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and innovations across the Mediterranean and beyond.
Processual Archaeology: Processual archaeology is an approach to archaeological research that emphasizes the scientific method, objective analysis, and the importance of understanding cultural processes through the study of material remains. This approach focuses on explaining human behavior and cultural change by using models and theories from various disciplines, making it essential for formulating clear goals and objectives in archaeological studies.
Reciprocal exchange: Reciprocal exchange refers to a system of trade where goods and services are exchanged between parties with the expectation of mutual benefit over time. This type of exchange fosters social relationships and reinforces community ties, as each party relies on the other for future exchanges, creating a cycle of giving and receiving that goes beyond simple transactions.
Redistributive exchange: Redistributive exchange is an economic system where goods and services are collected from various individuals or groups, pooled together, and then redistributed according to certain criteria or needs. This type of exchange often relies on a central authority or organization to manage the collection and redistribution processes, which can be seen in various archaeological contexts, particularly in understanding social hierarchies and the flow of resources within ancient communities.
Silk roads: The Silk Roads were a network of trade routes that connected the East and West, facilitating not just the exchange of silk but also a variety of goods, culture, ideas, and technologies. This extensive system played a crucial role in shaping the relationships between different civilizations, highlighting the importance of trade in the development of societies throughout history.
Trobriand Islanders: The Trobriand Islanders are a group of people living in the Trobriand Islands of Papua New Guinea, known for their unique cultural practices and social systems. They have been extensively studied by anthropologists, particularly for their intricate systems of trade and exchange, which highlight their social relationships and cultural values.