🏛️Intro to Ancient Rome Unit 17 – Constantine and the Late Empire

Who Was Constantine?

• Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor who ruled from 306 to 337 AD
• Born in Naissus, Moesia Superior (modern-day Serbia) around 272 AD to Flavius Constantius and Helena
• Served as a military tribune under emperors Diocletian and Galerius
• Became emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire after his father's death in 306 AD
• First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, which significantly impacted the empire and European history
• Implemented various military, political, and economic reforms that strengthened the empire
• Founded the city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 330 AD, which became the new capital of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire Before Constantine

• The Roman Empire faced numerous challenges in the 3rd century AD, including political instability, economic decline, and foreign invasions
• The Crisis of the Third Century (235-284 AD) saw frequent changes in leadership, with over 20 emperors ruling during this period
• Diocletian (r. 284-305 AD) implemented the Tetrarchy system, dividing the empire into two halves (East and West) ruled by two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesares)
  • This system aimed to improve stability and succession but ultimately failed due to rivalries and power struggles
• The empire faced threats from various foreign powers, including the Sassanid Persians in the East and Germanic tribes in the North
• Economic issues plagued the empire, including inflation, currency debasement, and a decline in trade and agriculture

Constantine's Rise to Power

• Constantine's father, Flavius Constantius, was appointed as one of the two Caesares under Diocletian's Tetrarchy system in 293 AD
• After Constantius' death in 306 AD, Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Eboracum (modern-day York, England)
• Constantine initially ruled as a Caesar in the western part of the empire, alongside his rival Maxentius, who controlled Italy and North Africa
• In 312 AD, Constantine marched his army towards Rome to confront Maxentius, leading to the pivotal Battle of Milvian Bridge
• Constantine's victory at Milvian Bridge and Maxentius' death consolidated his power in the western part of the empire
• Through a series of military campaigns and political alliances, Constantine eventually became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire by 324 AD, defeating his eastern rival Licinius

The Battle of Milvian Bridge

• The Battle of Milvian Bridge took place on October 28, 312 AD, between the armies of Constantine and Maxentius
• According to legend, Constantine had a vision of a cross in the sky with the words "In this sign, you shall conquer" before the battle
  • This vision prompted Constantine to adopt the Christian symbol of the Chi-Rho (☧) on his soldiers' shields
• The battle took place near the Milvian Bridge, which spanned the Tiber River near Rome
• Constantine's army defeated Maxentius' forces, and Maxentius himself drowned in the Tiber River while attempting to flee
• The victory at Milvian Bridge was a turning point in Constantine's rise to power and his embrace of Christianity
• The battle is often seen as a symbolic moment in the triumph of Christianity over paganism in the Roman Empire

Religious Reforms and Christianity

• Constantine's reign marked a significant shift in the Roman Empire's religious landscape, particularly concerning Christianity
• In 313 AD, Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted religious tolerance and ended the persecution of Christians in the empire
  • This edict allowed Christians to practice their faith openly and legally, and it restored their confiscated property
• Constantine actively supported the Christian Church through various measures, such as:
  • Building churches and basilicas (Old St. Peter's Basilica in Rome)
  • Granting privileges and exemptions to Christian clergy
  • Convening the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD to address theological disputes and establish orthodox Christian doctrine
• While Constantine favored Christianity, he did not outlaw pagan practices and remained tolerant of other religions
• Constantine's embrace of Christianity had far-reaching consequences, as it paved the way for the religion to become the dominant faith in the Roman Empire and, eventually, much of Europe

Political and Administrative Changes

• Constantine implemented several political and administrative reforms aimed at strengthening the empire and consolidating his power
• He continued and modified aspects of Diocletian's reforms, such as:
  • Maintaining the division of the empire into smaller, more manageable provinces
  • Separating civil and military authority to reduce the risk of usurpation
  • Reforming the tax system to ensure a more stable income for the state
• Constantine established a new imperial capital, Constantinople, on the site of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium in 330 AD
  • The city's strategic location on the Bosporus Strait allowed for better control over trade routes and defense against foreign threats
  • Moving the capital to the East also reflected the empire's shift in focus towards the more prosperous eastern provinces
• He reorganized the army, creating a mobile field army (comitatenses) and a static border defense force (limitanei) to improve the empire's military effectiveness
• Constantine strengthened the imperial bureaucracy and centralized decision-making, increasing the emperor's authority and control over the empire

Constantine's Legacy

• Constantine's reign had a profound and lasting impact on the Roman Empire and European history
• His embrace of Christianity and the subsequent Christianization of the empire transformed the religious, social, and cultural landscape of Europe
  • Christianity became the dominant religion in the empire and, eventually, most of Europe
  • The Church became a powerful institution, influencing politics, education, and social norms
• Constantine's political and administrative reforms, while not always successful in the long term, set the stage for the development of the Byzantine Empire in the East
• The city of Constantinople, which he founded, became a major center of culture, trade, and politics for centuries, serving as the capital of the Byzantine Empire until its fall in 1453 AD
• Constantine's reputation as a great emperor and a champion of Christianity endured long after his death, with the Eastern Orthodox Church recognizing him as a saint
• However, some scholars have also criticized Constantine for his authoritarian rule, his involvement in Church affairs, and the negative consequences of his religious policies

The Late Roman Empire After Constantine

• After Constantine's death in 337 AD, the Roman Empire faced renewed challenges and instability
• Constantine's sons, Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans, initially shared power as co-emperors but soon fought against each other for control of the empire
  • Constantius II emerged as the sole ruler in 353 AD after defeating his brothers
• The empire continued to face external threats, particularly from the Sassanid Persians in the East and various Germanic tribes (Goths, Vandals, Franks) along the northern borders
• Internal political instability persisted, with frequent usurpations and power struggles among rival emperors and generals
• The Roman Empire experienced a gradual decline in the West, with increasing pressure from barbarian invasions and a weakening of central authority
  • The city of Rome itself was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD and by the Vandals in 455 AD
• In the East, the empire remained relatively stable, with Constantinople serving as a center of power and culture
  • The Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, would endure for nearly a thousand years after the fall of the Western Roman Empire
• The late Roman Empire saw a continuation of the Christianization process begun under Constantine, with Christianity becoming the official state religion under Emperor Theodosius I in 380 AD
• Despite the challenges faced by the empire, the legacy of Constantine and his impact on the Roman world continued to shape the course of European history for centuries to come