1.1 The Study of American Politics
9 min read•august 14, 2024
American politics shapes our daily lives through policies on the economy, healthcare, education, and more. Understanding the system empowers us to make informed choices and advocate for change. It's not just dry theory—it's about real impacts on our society.
The U.S. political system is built on the , with power divided between federal and state governments. , , and the media all play key roles in shaping policy. Knowing how it all works helps us navigate the system and make our voices heard.
American Politics: Impact on Society
Shaping Public Policy
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- American politics shapes public policy on key issues like the economy, healthcare, education, civil rights, national security and foreign affairs that directly impact citizens' lives
- Economic policies (tax rates, government spending, regulation) affect job opportunities, wages, consumer prices, and overall prosperity
- Healthcare policies determine access to and affordability of medical care, insurance coverage, and public health measures
- Education policies set standards, funding, and priorities for K-12 schools and higher education institutions
- Civil rights policies protect equal rights and prevent discrimination based on race, gender, religion, disability, and sexual orientation
- National security policies guide military strategy, intelligence operations, border control, and counterterrorism efforts
- Foreign affairs policies manage relationships with other nations through diplomacy, trade agreements, aid, and military alliances
Long-term Consequences for Society
- Political decisions made by leaders and institutions have long-term consequences for American society in terms of economic prosperity, social equality, individual liberty and global relations
- Laws, regulations, and court rulings can establish rights, benefits, or restrictions that persist for generations (Social Security, Civil Rights Act)
- Fiscal policies like tax cuts or spending programs affect the long-term budgetary outlook and national debt
- Foreign policy choices like wars, treaties, and trade deals shape global power dynamics and America's international reputation
- Political appointments to federal courts, including the , shape the interpretation of laws and the Constitution for decades
Importance for Democratic Citizenship
- Studying politics equips citizens with knowledge to be informed voters, engaged in political processes, and able to hold leaders accountable to the will of the people in a
- Understanding candidate positions, party platforms, and policy debates enables voters to make reasoned choices in elections
- Following legislative activity, court decisions, and administration actions allows citizens to monitor and evaluate the performance of elected officials
- Knowing the structure and functions of government institutions empowers citizens to navigate bureaucracies and access services
- Recognizing core democratic principles (rule of law, individual rights, ) helps citizens safeguard against abuses of power
Empowering Advocacy and Activism
- Understanding the political system allows individuals and groups to effectively advocate for their interests and create political change through activism, lobbying, and collective action
- Forming or joining interest groups and political organizations amplifies voices on specific causes or policy issues (NRA, Sierra Club, NAACP)
- Engaging in grassroots mobilization through protests, petitions, and voter registration drives builds public support and pressure for reform
- Lobbying elected officials and testifying at hearings provides direct input into the policymaking process
- Organizing campaign contributions, endorsements, and voter outreach influences electoral outcomes and party agendas
Components of the American Political System
Constitutional Framework
- The U.S. Constitution establishes the structure and powers of the federal government divided into three branches - legislative (Congress), executive (President), and judicial (Supreme Court)
- The legislative branch, consisting of the Senate and House of Representatives, makes laws, declares war, regulates commerce, and oversees the executive branch
- The executive branch, led by the President, enforces laws, conducts foreign policy, commands the military, and appoints federal officials
- The judicial branch, with the Supreme Court at the top, interprets laws, determines the constitutionality of laws, and resolves disputes between parties or governments
- Checks and balances between the branches, such as the presidential veto, Senate confirmation of appointments, and judicial review, prevent concentration of power
Federalism and State Governments
- divides power between national and state governments, with states retaining powers not delegated to federal government and handling issues like education, law enforcement and infrastructure
- Enumerated powers are specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution (coining money, regulating interstate commerce, declaring war)
- Reserved powers belong to the states as outlined in the Tenth Amendment (establishing local governments, managing elections, maintaining roads)
- Concurrent powers are shared by federal and state governments (collecting taxes, establishing courts, making and enforcing laws)
- Cooperative federalism involves the national and state governments coordinating policies and sharing funding for programs (Medicaid, highway construction)
Political Parties and Elections
- The two-party system is dominated by the Democratic and Republican parties which organize electoral competition, though minor third parties also compete and influence politics
- Democrats generally support a larger role for government in regulating the economy and providing social services, emphasizing equality and diversity
- Republicans typically favor lower taxes, less regulation, and a stronger national defense, stressing individual liberty and traditional values
- Third parties like the Libertarian, Green, and Constitution parties offer alternative ideologies and policy agendas, occasionally impacting elections (Ross Perot in 1992)
- The winner-take-all electoral system, campaign finance laws, and ballot access rules create challenges for third parties to gain widespread support
Influencing Policy and Politics
- Interest groups, lobbyists, think tanks, and activists work to shape policy by providing information to policymakers, mobilizing public opinion, and making campaign contributions
- Interest groups represent specific constituencies (labor unions, business associations, issue-based organizations) and advocate for favorable policies
- Lobbyists are paid professionals who build relationships with policymakers to influence legislation on behalf of clients
- Think tanks are research institutes that develop policy ideas and provide expert analysis to shape political debates (Brookings Institution, Heritage Foundation)
- Activists engage in political action, from protest movements to voter mobilization efforts, to advance social, economic, or environmental causes (Black Lives Matter, Tea Party)
Media and Political Communication
- The media, including news organizations and social media platforms, play a key role in providing political information to the public and shaping the political agenda and narrative
- News coverage of campaigns, elections, and government actions informs citizens and holds leaders accountable
- Editorial decisions about which stories to cover and how to frame issues can influence public perceptions and priorities
- Political advertising, especially on television, allows candidates and groups to directly appeal to voters and control their message
- Social media enables direct communication between leaders and the public, rapid spread of information, and virtual organizing of political movements
- Concerns about media bias, misinformation, and foreign interference through digital channels have grown in recent years
Political Ideology in America
Liberal-Conservative Spectrum
- The liberal-conservative ideological spectrum structures political debates, with liberals generally favoring government intervention to ensure equality and conservatives preferring limited government and free markets
- Liberals typically support policies like progressive taxation, social welfare programs, environmental regulation, and affirmative action to address inequalities
- Conservatives often prioritize policies such as lower taxes, deregulation, strong national defense, and traditional social values
- Moderates fall in the center of the spectrum, holding a mix of liberal and conservative views or favoring bipartisan compromise
- Left-right ideological self-identification is a strong predictor of voting behavior and party affiliation in the electorate
Other Ideological Divisions
- Other ideological divisions in American politics include populist vs. elite, nationalist vs. globalist, libertarian vs. statist, and traditional vs. progressive values
- emphasizes the interests of ordinary people against a privileged elite, often skeptical of big business and big government (Bernie Sanders, Donald Trump campaigns)
- prioritizes national sovereignty and identity over international cooperation and global governance (opposition to trade agreements, immigration)
- advocates for maximizing individual liberty through limited government, free markets, and personal responsibility (Ron Paul, Cato Institute)
- seeks to advance social, political, and economic reforms to address problems like inequality, discrimination, and corporate power (Elizabeth Warren, Progressive Caucus)
Polarization and Partisan Sorting
- Ideological polarization has increased in recent decades, with the two parties becoming more ideologically homogeneous and the electorate more divided along partisan lines
- The Democratic Party has become more uniformly liberal and the Republican Party more consistently conservative, with fewer moderate members
- Geographic sorting has increased the number of "landslide districts" where one party holds a strong majority, reducing electoral competition
- Partisan media ecosystems and social media "echo chambers" reinforce ideological divisions by providing selective information flows
- , or hostility toward the opposing party, has risen among voters, fueling negative partisanship and gridlock
Ideology and Political Behavior
- Ideology influences political behavior like voting choices, party affiliation, policy preferences, and receptiveness to political messaging and misinformation
- Ideological alignment with a party or candidate is a key factor in voting decisions, especially among engaged partisans
- Policy preferences on issues like the size of government, social policies, and foreign affairs tend to correlate with ideological orientation
- Selective exposure to ideologically congenial news sources and political commentary can reinforce existing beliefs and filter out opposing views
- Vulnerability to political misinformation, conspiracy theories, and "fake news" can vary by ideology, with some evidence of asymmetry between the left and right
Public Opinion's Influence on Politics
Measuring Public Opinion
- Public opinion consists of the collective attitudes and preferences of citizens on political issues, leaders, and institutions, which can be measured through polls and surveys
- Election polls gauge support for candidates, forecast outcomes, and identify key swing voters or constituencies (exit polls, tracking polls)
- Issue polls assess public views on specific policies, social trends, and national conditions (approval ratings, consumer confidence, policy support)
- Benchmark surveys provide in-depth data on long-term opinion trends, values, and demographics (General Social Survey, American National Election Studies)
- Challenges in gauging public opinion include sampling errors, response biases, question wording effects, and the difficulty of measuring intensity of preferences
Shaping Public Opinion
- Politicians and parties aim to shape public opinion in their favor through political communication like campaign ads, speeches, and press releases to build support for their agenda
- Framing issues in terms of values, priorities, and trade-offs that resonate with target audiences (emphasizing job creation or environmental protection)
- Priming voters to prioritize certain issues over others when evaluating candidates or policies (focusing on national security or healthcare)
- Persuasive messaging through emotional appeals, credible sources, and repetition of key themes (fear of crime, hope for change)
- Mobilizing public opinion through rallies, demonstrations, and grassroots organizing to show popular support or opposition (Tea Party, March for Our Lives)
Public Opinion as a Constraint
- Public opinion can constrain policymakers by applying pressure to act on popular issues or blocking unpopular proposals, incentivizing responsiveness to mass preferences
- Salient issues that receive high media attention and public engagement are more likely to face pressure for action (gun control after mass shootings)
- Intensity of preferences, such as single-issue voters or an energized minority, can outweigh majority opinion in shaping policy (pro-Israel lobby, anti-abortion movement)
- Lack of public support can doom major policy initiatives or force reversals (Clinton healthcare reform, Bush Social Security privatization)
- Fear of electoral backlash or future policy reversals can deter politicians from pursuing unpopular agenda items, encouraging moderation
Limits of Public Opinion
- "Rational ignorance" and low political knowledge among the public can reduce the impact of public opinion, as people don't always have fully-formed views on complex policy issues
- Busy citizens have limited time and attention to devote to politics, relying on information shortcuts like party cues or trusted elites
- "Rational ignorance" suggests that the costs of becoming fully informed outweigh the benefits for most people, given the low probability of a single vote affecting outcomes
- Polls often find high shares of "don't know" responses or unstable views on low-salience or technical policy issues (foreign aid budget, trade agreements)
- Elites and interest groups with concentrated stakes in an issue can exert outsized influence compared to diffuse public sentiment
Opinion Change and Policy Impact
- Shifting public opinion over time on social and cultural issues, such as same-sex marriage and marijuana legalization, has led to changes in public policy
- Generational replacement, as younger cohorts with different views age into the electorate, can produce long-term opinion shifts (approval of interracial marriage)
- Major events, information flows, and social interactions can change individual attitudes and aggregate opinion (9/11 attacks and support for Iraq War)
- Changes in media coverage, elite cues, and the political agenda can elevate issues and reframe debates (Black Lives Matter and criminal justice reform)
- Policy changes often lag behind opinion shifts, as institutions and vested interests can resist change, but durable opinion trends shape the political landscape
Key Terms to Review (25)
Affective polarization: Affective polarization refers to the increasing emotional divide and animosity between political parties and their supporters, where individuals develop strong feelings of dislike towards members of opposing parties. This phenomenon reflects how political identities become deeply intertwined with personal identities, often leading to heightened emotions and biased perceptions of those with differing political views. As individuals become more entrenched in their party loyalties, they may also experience stronger feelings of in-group solidarity, making it harder to engage with or understand opposing viewpoints.
Bill of Rights: The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which were ratified in 1791 to guarantee individual liberties and limit the powers of the federal government. These amendments ensure fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and the right to bear arms, reflecting the core values of democracy and personal freedom that are essential to American political identity. The Bill of Rights plays a crucial role in protecting citizens from government overreach and upholding the principles outlined in the Constitution.
Checks and balances: Checks and balances is a system that ensures no one branch of government becomes too powerful by providing each branch with specific powers to limit the actions of the others. This interconnected framework is crucial for maintaining the rule of law, preventing abuse of power, and promoting accountability among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Civic engagement: Civic engagement refers to the active participation of individuals in the political and community life, influencing decisions and fostering a sense of responsibility towards society. This concept encompasses various forms of involvement, such as voting, volunteering, activism, and engaging in discussions about public issues. Civic engagement is crucial for a functioning democracy as it empowers citizens to voice their opinions and impact local and national policies.
Conservatism: Conservatism is a political ideology that emphasizes tradition, limited government, individual liberties, and a cautious approach to change. It often advocates for maintaining established institutions and customs, viewing them as essential for societal stability. This ideology shapes various political behaviors and beliefs, influencing how individuals view governance, social policies, and welfare systems.
Constitution: A constitution is a fundamental legal document that outlines the framework and principles of governance for a political entity, establishing the structure of government, the distribution of powers, and the rights of individuals. It serves as the supreme law of the land, guiding the operation of government institutions and protecting citizens' liberties. The U.S. Constitution, drafted in 1787, is a pivotal example, influencing both domestic policies and international governance.
Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives. This form of governance emphasizes principles like equality, freedom, and participation, allowing citizens to have a voice in the decision-making processes that affect their lives. In a democratic society, the rule of law prevails, ensuring that all individuals have rights and protections.
Electoral College: The Electoral College is a unique system established by the Constitution for electing the President and Vice President of the United States. It consists of 538 electors, with each state allocated a number based on its representation in Congress, and a majority of 270 electoral votes is required to win the presidency. This system highlights the balance between popular vote and state representation, influencing both presidential campaigns and voter engagement across different states.
Federalism: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, such as states or provinces. This division of power allows for both national and local governance, enabling different levels of government to operate within their respective jurisdictions. It plays a crucial role in American governance by balancing the powers of the national and state governments while promoting local autonomy and representation.
Freedom of Speech: Freedom of speech is the right to express one's opinions and ideas without fear of government retaliation or censorship. This principle is foundational to democratic governance and individual liberty, allowing for open discourse, criticism of the government, and the sharing of diverse viewpoints. It is a central element in discussions about civil liberties, highlighting the balance between individual rights and societal interests.
Interest Groups: Interest groups are organized groups of individuals or organizations that seek to influence public policy and decision-making to benefit their specific interests or causes. These groups play a critical role in the political process by representing diverse perspectives, mobilizing members, and advocating for particular issues. Their activities often involve lobbying government officials, conducting research, and engaging in grassroots campaigns to raise awareness and support for their agendas.
James Madison: James Madison was the fourth President of the United States and is often called the 'Father of the Constitution' for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. His ideas on governance and human rights helped shape American political institutions and philosophies, connecting deeply to principles such as federalism, separation of powers, and checks and balances.
John Locke: John Locke was a 17th-century English philosopher whose ideas about government, natural rights, and the social contract greatly influenced modern political thought. His belief that individuals have inherent rights to life, liberty, and property laid the groundwork for liberal democracy and inspired the framers of the American political system. Locke's concepts of government by consent and the right to revolt against unjust authority are fundamental to understanding American political ideology.
Liberalism: Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual freedoms, equality, and the protection of civil rights, advocating for a government that is accountable to the people and promotes social justice. It plays a crucial role in shaping political discourse, influencing policies related to civil rights, social welfare, and foreign relations, as well as being a significant factor in how citizens align their beliefs and values in a diverse society.
Libertarianism: Libertarianism is a political philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, minimal government intervention, and the protection of civil liberties. It advocates for a free market economy and personal responsibility while opposing state control in both personal and economic matters. This philosophy is deeply connected to the principles of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law, which underpin American political culture and the framework for civil liberties.
Nationalism: Nationalism is an ideological movement that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a specific nation or group of people, often in the context of seeking self-governance or independence. It fosters a sense of belonging and pride among individuals sharing common characteristics like language, ethnicity, and history. Nationalism can unify a population but can also lead to exclusionary practices against those seen as outsiders.
Political Parties: Political parties are organized groups of people who share similar political beliefs and ideologies, working together to influence government policy and gain power through elections. They play a crucial role in American politics by mobilizing voters, facilitating political participation, and structuring the electoral process, helping to simplify complex political landscapes for citizens.
Populism: Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against a perceived elite or establishment. This ideology can manifest across the political spectrum, as it focuses on the idea that society is divided into two groups: 'the pure people' and 'the corrupt elite.' Populism is often characterized by a charismatic leader who claims to speak for the common people and advocates for policies that reflect their grievances.
Primary elections: Primary elections are a critical part of the electoral process in which political parties select their candidates for the general election. These elections can take various forms, including open, closed, and semi-closed systems, and they play a significant role in determining the final candidates who will represent each party on the ballot. Understanding primary elections is essential because they influence candidate selection, voter engagement, and party dynamics leading up to both local and national elections.
Progressivism: Progressivism is a political and social movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for reform to address the issues brought about by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption in politics. It sought to improve society through government intervention, emphasizing social justice, environmental stewardship, and the need for increased democracy. This ideology played a significant role in shaping modern American politics and remains influential in discussions about governance today.
Republic: A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a 'public matter,' with officials being accountable to the public and must govern according to existing constitutional law. This system often features a separation of powers, where the legislative, executive, and judicial branches operate independently. The concept of a republic emphasizes the role of citizens in electing representatives to make decisions on their behalf, reflecting the values of democracy and the rule of law.
Right to bear arms: The right to bear arms refers to the legal and constitutional right of individuals to possess and carry weapons, primarily firearms. This right is rooted in the Second Amendment of the United States Constitution, which has sparked ongoing debates about gun control, personal safety, and individual liberties in American society.
Separation of Powers: Separation of powers is a governance principle that divides the responsibilities and powers of government into distinct branches, typically the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This structure is designed to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power, ensuring a system of checks and balances where each branch can limit the actions of the others. It plays a crucial role in American political structure and reflects the framers' intention to create a government that remains accountable to the people.
Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States and serves as the final arbiter of legal disputes, with the power to interpret the Constitution and review laws. Its decisions have a significant impact on American law and politics, influencing civil rights, government authority, and individual freedoms. As a crucial component of the federal judiciary, it plays a key role in maintaining the rule of law and ensuring justice across the nation.
Voter turnout: Voter turnout refers to the percentage of eligible voters who participate in an election, reflecting the level of civic engagement and the effectiveness of the electoral process. High voter turnout is often associated with competitive elections and effective mobilization efforts, while low turnout can indicate apathy, disenfranchisement, or barriers to voting. Understanding voter turnout is crucial for analyzing democratic participation and the health of political systems.