12.2 Gender and Gender Inequality
5 min read•june 18, 2024
Gender shapes our lives from birth, influencing how we're treated and what's expected of us. Family, peers, media, and schools all play a role in teaching us gender norms and roles. These lessons impact everything from toy choices to career paths.
Gender inequality persists in many areas of life, including education, work, and family. Women face challenges like the and , while also shouldering more domestic responsibilities. Feminist movements have fought for gender equality throughout history, evolving to address intersectional issues.
Gender and Socialization
Shaping of gender roles
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- begins at birth and continues throughout life, involving the process of learning , norms, and expectations through social interactions and institutions
- play a crucial role in shaping gender roles:
- Family serves as the primary source of gender socialization, with parents, siblings, and extended family reinforcing gender norms and expectations (toy choices, clothing, activities)
- Peers influence gender role development through play, social interactions, and peer pressure (gender-segregated play groups, teasing for non-conformity)
- Media portrays gender stereotypes and ideal gender roles, reinforcing traditional gender norms through advertising, movies, television, and social media (action heroes, princesses, gendered product marketing)
- Education system, including schools and teachers, reinforces gender norms through curriculum, classroom dynamics, and extracurricular activities, with the teaching implicit gender lessons (dress codes, gendered subject preferences)
- Gender roles are sets of behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with being male or female, varying across cultures and changing over time
- Traditional gender roles in American society have positioned men as breadwinners and leaders and women as homemakers and caregivers
- Contemporary society has seen changing gender roles, with increased participation of women in the workforce and greater acceptance of non-traditional gender roles and expressions (stay-at-home dads, female executives)
Gender Identity and Expression
- refers to an individual's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender
- is how a person outwardly presents their gender through behavior, appearance, and mannerisms
- The is a social construct that categorizes gender into two distinct, opposite forms of masculine and feminine
- is the distress a person experiences when their doesn't align with their assigned sex at birth
- refers to harmful cultural norms associated with traditional male gender roles that can be detrimental to men, women, and society as a whole
Gender Stratification and Inequality
Gender stratification in institutions
- Education exhibits gender differences and inequalities:
- Women now outpace men in college enrollment and completion
- Gender segregation persists in fields of study, with women more likely to pursue degrees in education, health, and social sciences and men more likely to pursue degrees in STEM fields (nursing, engineering)
- Gender bias exists in classroom dynamics and curriculum (teacher attention, gendered expectations)
- Work demonstrates significant gender disparities:
- Gender pay gap results in women earning less than men for comparable work due to factors such as , discrimination, and (78 cents to the dollar)
- Occupational segregation leads to the concentration of women in lower-paying, service-oriented jobs and men in higher-paying, leadership positions (teaching, construction)
- refers to the invisible barriers preventing women from advancing to top leadership positions (lack of mentorship, old boys' networks)
- Family life is characterized by gendered divisions and expectations:
- Women perform a disproportionate share of unpaid domestic work and childcare
- Motherhood penalty negatively impacts women's career advancement and earnings
- Changing family structures, such as the increase in dual-earner households and single-parent families, challenge traditional gender roles within the family (breadwinning mothers, caregiving fathers)
Examples of everyday gender inequality
- Workplace discrimination manifests in various forms:
- Unequal pay for equal work (gender wage gap)
- and hostile work environments (inappropriate comments, quid pro quo)
- Lack of advancement opportunities for women (leadership positions, promotions)
- Media representation perpetuates gender inequality:
- Underrepresentation of women in lead roles and positions of power (film directors, news anchors)
- Objectification and sexualization of women in media (advertising, music videos)
- Reinforcement of gender stereotypes in advertising and programming (cleaning products, action figures)
- Domestic violence and sexual assault disproportionately affect women:
- Intimate partner violence and sexual assault rates are higher for women
- Victim-blaming attitudes and lack of support for survivors (questioning clothing choices, sexual history)
- Political representation shows gender disparities:
- Underrepresentation of women in elected offices and leadership positions (Congress, governorships)
- Gender bias in political campaigns and media coverage (focus on appearance, family roles)
- highlights the compounding effects of gender, race, class, and other social identities on inequality, with unique challenges faced by women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other marginalized groups (wage gaps, discrimination)
Evolution of U.S. feminist movements
- (mid-19th to early 20th century) focused on women's suffrage and legal rights
- Key figures: ,
- Achievements: 19th Amendment granting women the right to vote
- (1960s-1980s) emphasized gender equality in the workplace, reproductive rights, and sexual liberation
- Key figures: ,
- Achievements: Equal Pay Act, Title IX, Roe v. Wade
- (1990s-2010s) centered on intersectionality, body positivity, and challenging gender norms
- Key figures: ,
- Achievements: Increased awareness of intersectionality and diversity within the feminist movement
- (2010s-present) emphasizes digital activism, the #MeToo movement, and intersectional issues
- Key figures: ,
- Achievements: Increased public awareness of sexual harassment and assault, global solidarity through social media
Sociological perspectives on gender
- views gender roles as serving important functions for society, with traditional gender roles maintaining social stability and cohesion; criticized for overlooking gender inequality and resistance to change
- sees gender inequality as stemming from power imbalances and oppression, with and capitalism reinforcing ; feminist movements challenge and seek to dismantle gender-based oppression
- understands gender as socially constructed through interactions and symbolic meanings, with individuals learning and performing gender roles through socialization and everyday interactions; focuses on micro-level experiences and the fluidity of gender identities
- challenges binary and heteronormative understandings of gender and sexuality, emphasizing the fluidity and diversity of gender and sexual identities; examines how power structures and discourse shape experiences of gender and sexuality (non-binary identities, LGBTQ+ rights)
Key Terms to Review (42)
Agents of Socialization: Agents of socialization are the individuals, groups, and institutions that influence a person's socialization process and help shape their values, beliefs, and behaviors throughout their lifetime. These agents play a crucial role in transmitting cultural norms and expectations, guiding an individual's development, and facilitating their integration into society.
Betty Friedan: Betty Friedan was an American feminist writer and activist who played a pivotal role in the women's rights movement of the 1960s. She is best known for her groundbreaking book 'The Feminine Mystique', which challenged the prevailing societal norms and expectations of women at the time.
Biological determinism: Biological determinism is the belief that human behavior and social phenomena are primarily determined by biological factors, including genetics and physiological characteristics. It posits that aspects of human culture, identity, and social status are rooted in innate biological differences rather than cultural or environmental influences.
Conflict Perspective: The conflict perspective is a sociological theory that emphasizes the role of social conflict and power struggles in shaping social structures, institutions, and individual experiences. It views society as an arena where different groups compete for scarce resources, status, and influence, leading to ongoing tensions, inequalities, and social change.
Cyberfeminism: Cyberfeminism is an approach that applies feminist perspectives to technology, arguing that the digital world influences and is influenced by gender relations. It explores how power dynamics in digital spaces can perpetuate or challenge societal norms regarding gender.
Doing gender: Doing gender is the process by which individuals perform tasks or participate in activities in line with socially constructed gender norms and expectations. It emphasizes that gender is not an innate quality but rather an identity continually recreated through social interactions.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prominent American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the women's rights movement in the 19th century. She played a pivotal role in advocating for gender equality and challenging the social and political norms that limited women's rights and opportunities.
Feminism: Feminism is a social and political movement that advocates for the rights, equality, and empowerment of women. It challenges traditional gender roles and power structures that have historically disadvantaged women in society, seeking to create a more equitable world for people of all genders.
First-wave Feminism: First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and advocacy that took place primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It focused on gaining women's suffrage, or the right to vote, as well as addressing issues of gender inequality in areas such as property rights, employment, and education.
Fourth-wave feminism: Fourth-wave feminism is the latest phase of the feminist movement, characterized by a focus on intersectionality, online activism, and addressing issues such as sexual harassment, body shaming, and rape culture. It builds upon the foundations laid by previous waves of feminism while adapting to the digital age and addressing contemporary societal challenges.
Functionalist Perspective: The functionalist perspective is a theoretical framework in sociology that views society as a complex system with interconnected parts, each of which serves a specific function to maintain the overall stability and order of the system. This perspective emphasizes the role of social institutions, structures, and processes in meeting the functional needs of society.
Gender Binary: The gender binary is a social construct that categorizes gender into two distinct, opposite, and mutually exclusive forms - male and female. It is a normative system that assumes everyone must identify as either a man or a woman, with no room for other gender identities or expressions.
Gender Dysphoria: Gender dysphoria is a condition where an individual experiences distress or discomfort due to a mismatch between their biological sex and their internal sense of gender identity. It is a recognized medical diagnosis that can have significant impacts on a person's mental health and overall well-being.
Gender Expression: Gender expression refers to the way an individual outwardly communicates their gender identity through appearance, behavior, interests, and other external characteristics. It is the manifestation of one's internal sense of gender, which may or may not align with the sex they were assigned at birth.
Gender identity: Gender identity is an individual's personal sense of their own gender, which may or may not correspond to the sex they were assigned at birth. It is a deeply felt experience of gender, which could be male, female, both, neither, or anywhere along the gender spectrum.
Gender Identity: Gender identity refers to a person's internal sense of being male, female, neither, or another gender. It is a fundamental aspect of one's sense of self and is distinct from biological sex or sexual orientation.
Gender Pay Gap: The gender pay gap refers to the persistent disparity in average earnings between men and women in the workforce. It represents the difference in the typical wages or salaries earned by men compared to women, often expressed as a percentage of men's earnings.
Gender Roles: Gender roles refer to the socially constructed and culturally-specific expectations, behaviors, and activities that are considered appropriate for individuals based on their biological sex. These roles shape how people of different genders are expected to think, feel, and act in a given society or culture.
Gender Socialization: Gender socialization is the process by which individuals learn and internalize the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviors associated with their biological sex. It shapes how people perceive, experience, and express their gender identity and gender roles within a given society or culture.
Gender Stratification: Gender stratification refers to the hierarchical ordering of gender groups within a society, where one gender group is systematically advantaged or disadvantaged in relation to the other. This concept examines how gender shapes access to power, resources, and opportunities, leading to unequal outcomes between men and women.
Glass ceiling: The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that prevents certain groups, particularly women and minorities, from advancing beyond a certain level in a hierarchy or organization, despite qualifications or achievements. It reflects underlying institutional biases that limit opportunities for advancement based on gender, race, or ethnicity.
Glass Ceiling: The glass ceiling refers to an invisible, yet unbreakable barrier that prevents certain groups, particularly women and minorities, from advancing to higher-level positions within an organization or industry, despite their qualifications and experience.
Gloria Steinem: Gloria Steinem is an American feminist, journalist, and social and political activist who has been a leader of the women's liberation movement since the late 1960s. She is known for her advocacy of gender equality and her contributions to the advancement of the feminist movement in the United States.
Hidden curriculum: Hidden curriculum consists of the unspoken or implicit values, behaviors, and norms taught in educational institutions alongside the formal curriculum. It influences students' understanding of societal expectations without being formally assessed.
Hidden Curriculum: The hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, implicit, and unintended lessons, values, and behaviors that students learn in educational settings, beyond the formal curriculum. It encompasses the underlying messages, norms, and expectations that shape the educational experience and influence student development in subtle yet profound ways.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a theoretical framework that examines how multiple social identities, such as race, class, gender, sexuality, and disability, intersect and create unique experiences of privilege, oppression, and discrimination. It explores how these interconnected identities shape individuals' lived experiences and social realities.
Kimberlé Crenshaw: Kimberlé Crenshaw is a prominent legal scholar and civil rights advocate who is known for her pioneering work on the theory of intersectionality. Intersectionality examines how different forms of social inequality, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect and compound to create unique experiences of marginalization.
Malala Yousafzai: Malala Yousafzai is a Pakistani activist for female education and a Nobel Peace Prize laureate. She is known for her courageous advocacy for girls' right to education, especially in the context of gender inequality and the challenges faced by women in certain parts of the world.
Misogyny: Misogyny is the dislike of, contempt for, or ingrained prejudice against women. It manifests in various forms, including discrimination, stereotyping, and violence towards women.
Motherhood Penalty: The motherhood penalty refers to the disadvantages and negative career outcomes experienced by women due to the societal expectations and biases associated with motherhood. It describes the challenges and discrimination mothers face in the workplace compared to their non-mother counterparts.
Occupational Segregation: Occupational segregation refers to the systematic concentration of individuals, particularly women and minorities, into specific types of jobs or occupations based on their gender, race, or other demographic characteristics. This phenomenon results in the unequal distribution of workers across various professions and industries.
Patriarchy: Patriarchy is a social system in which power is primarily held by men, where men dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. It is a system that privileges masculine traits and perspectives over feminine ones, and is deeply ingrained in many societies around the world.
Queer Theory: Queer theory is a critical approach that challenges traditional understandings of gender, sexuality, and identity. It seeks to disrupt the normative assumptions about what is considered 'normal' or 'natural' in terms of sexual orientation and gender expression, and to explore the fluidity and diversity of human experiences.
Rebecca Walker: Rebecca Walker is an American writer, feminist, and activist who has made significant contributions to the understanding of gender and gender inequality. As a prominent figure in the third-wave feminist movement, she has explored the complexities of gender identity, the impact of societal expectations, and the ongoing struggle for gender equality.
Second-wave feminism: Second-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought that began in the early 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s. It focused on issues of equality, such as ending gender discrimination, gaining reproductive rights, and achieving workplace equality for women.
Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassment refers to unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work or educational environment. It is a form of sex-based discrimination that violates an individual's rights and can have significant personal and professional consequences.
Social construction of sexuality: The social construction of sexuality posits that societal norms, cultural contexts, and historical periods shape understandings and expressions of sexual desire, orientation, and behaviors rather than these aspects being solely determined by biological or natural factors. It highlights how sexuality is influenced and defined through social processes.
Susan B. Anthony: Susan B. Anthony was a prominent American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement, advocating for women's right to vote in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Her tireless efforts and activism were instrumental in laying the groundwork for the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote in the United States.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: The symbolic interactionist perspective is a sociological theory that emphasizes the ways in which individuals, through their interactions with others, create and maintain a sense of self and the social world around them. This perspective focuses on the symbolic meanings that people develop and share, and how these shape human behavior and social interactions.
Tarana Burke: Tarana Burke is an American civil rights activist who founded the 'Me Too' movement in 2006 to help survivors of sexual violence, particularly Black girls and women from low-wealth communities. She is known for her work in elevating the voices and experiences of marginalized communities affected by sexual abuse and harassment.
Third-wave feminism: Third-wave feminism is a movement that emerged in the 1990s, building upon the foundations laid by the first and second waves of feminism. It is characterized by a more inclusive and intersectional approach, addressing a wider range of issues related to gender, sexuality, race, and other social identities.
Toxic Masculinity: Toxic masculinity refers to a set of attitudes and behaviors considered typical of men, which have a harmful impact on both men and women. It encompasses the promotion of aggression, dominance, and emotional suppression as desirable masculine traits, often at the expense of more positive and healthy expressions of masculinity.