11.5 Race and Ethnicity in the United States
5 min read•june 18, 2024
Racial and ethnic groups in the U.S. face diverse experiences shaped by history, immigration, and social structures. African Americans confront , while Hispanic and Asian Americans navigate cultural identities. Native Americans struggle with historical trauma, and White Americans grapple with changing demographics.
Theories like functionalism, , and offer different perspectives on intergroup relations. Immigration policies have significantly impacted demographic trends and societal dynamics. persists through institutions, affecting access to resources and opportunities for minority groups.
Racial and Ethnic Groups in the U.S.
Experiences of racial-ethnic groups
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- African Americans
- Endured centuries of slavery, , and systemic that have shaped their experiences and current status
- Face significant disparities in income (median household income 71,031 for whites), wealth (median net worth 188,200 for whites), education (23% hold bachelor's degrees vs. 36% of whites), and health outcomes (life expectancy 75.3 years vs. 78.8 years for whites)
- Confront ongoing struggles with police brutality (Black individuals 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police than whites), (Black individuals incarcerated at 5 times the rate of whites), and discrimination in various domains of life (employment, housing, healthcare)
- Experience in law enforcement and other settings, perpetuating systemic inequalities
- Hispanic and Latino Americans
- Comprise individuals with diverse origins from Latin America (Mexico, Central America, South America), the Caribbean (Puerto Rico, Cuba, Dominican Republic), and Spain
- Represent the fastest-growing racial-ethnic group in the U.S., accounting for 18.7% of the population as of 2020 and projected to reach 27.5% by 2060
- Navigate challenges related to immigration status (approximately 44% are foreign-born), language barriers (71% speak a language other than English at home), and cultural (balancing heritage with American identity)
- Asian Americans
- Encompass a wide range of ethnic backgrounds (Chinese, Indian, Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean) and immigration histories (from 19th-century laborers to recent high-skilled professionals)
- Often stereotyped as the "" due to higher levels of educational attainment (54% hold bachelor's degrees) and median household income ($85,800) compared to the general population
- Exhibit significant socioeconomic diversity, with some ethnic groups (Hmong, Bangladeshi) facing higher rates of poverty and limited access to resources
- Native Americans
- Experienced historical trauma through colonization, forced relocation (), and cultural suppression (boarding schools, language bans) that have lasting impacts on their communities
- Struggle with disproportionate levels of poverty (26.2% live below the poverty line), health disparities (2.5 times higher rates of diabetes), and limited access to resources (inadequate housing, education, healthcare)
- Engage in efforts to preserve cultural heritage (language revitalization, traditional practices) and assert (self-governance, land rights, economic development)
- White Americans
- Historically held a dominant and privileged position in American society, shaping institutions, policies, and cultural norms to their advantage
- Face changing demographics as their share of the population declines (projected to be 44.3% by 2060) and the U.S. becomes more racially and ethnically diverse
- Encompass varied ethnic backgrounds (European ancestries) and regional identities (Southern, Midwestern, Northeastern) that shape their experiences and perspectives
- Benefit from in various aspects of social, economic, and political life
Theories of intergroup relations
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- Examines how social institutions (family, education, religion) contribute to maintaining social order and stability
- Suggests that racial and ethnic diversity can serve positive functions, such as promoting cultural exchange, fostering innovation, and strengthening social cohesion
- Criticized for overlooking power imbalances, systemic inequalities, and conflicts that arise from racial and ethnic stratification
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- Focuses on how power, competition, and inequality shape relations between racial and ethnic groups
- Argues that racial and ethnic stratification results from the dominant group's exploitation and oppression of minority groups to maintain their privileged status
- Highlights historical and ongoing struggles among racial and ethnic groups for access to resources (wealth, education, political power), recognition, and rights
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- Explores how social interactions and shared meanings contribute to the construction and maintenance of racial and ethnic identities
- Examines how stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination are perpetuated through everyday interactions, language, and media representations
- Emphasizes the role of individual agency and resistance in challenging and transforming racial and ethnic inequalities through social movements, counter-narratives, and identity negotiation
Impacts of immigration policies
- Historical immigration policies
- Implemented restrictive policies based on national origins and racial preferences, such as the (1882) and the (1924), which favored European immigrants and excluded or limited others
- Shifted towards more inclusive policies with the of 1965, which abolished national origins quotas and prioritized family reunification and skilled labor
- Engage in ongoing debates over border control (building walls, increasing enforcement), refugee admissions (setting annual caps, vetting processes), and undocumented immigration (paths to citizenship, deportation policies)
- Demographic trends
- Experience increasing racial and ethnic diversity due to immigration (approximately 14% of the U.S. population is foreign-born) and differential fertility rates (higher among minority groups)
- Project a "majority-minority" status by mid-21st century, with non-Hispanic whites comprising less than 50% of the population
- Face implications for social cohesion (managing cultural differences), political representation (ensuring diverse voices in government), and cultural identity (redefining what it means to be American)
- Impacts on society
- Benefit from the economic contributions of immigrant labor (filling essential jobs, starting businesses) and entrepreneurship (driving innovation, creating jobs)
- Enjoy cultural enrichment through diverse traditions (food, art, music), languages (multilingualism), and perspectives (global outlooks, values)
- Confront challenges related to social integration (bridging cultural gaps), language acquisition (providing English language education), and access to resources (ensuring equitable opportunities)
- Engage in debates over (adopting mainstream culture), multiculturalism (celebrating cultural diversity), and national identity (balancing unity and diversity)
Systemic Racism and Discrimination
- perpetuates racial inequalities through policies, practices, and norms in various social institutions
- historically restricted access to housing and financial services for minority communities, contributing to long-term wealth disparities
- policies aim to address historical disadvantages and promote diversity in education and employment
- can lead to discrimination and hostility towards immigrants and perceived foreigners
- , subtle forms of discrimination, impact the daily experiences of racial and ethnic minorities
Key Terms to Review (44)
Affirmative Action: Affirmative action refers to policies and programs that aim to increase the representation of historically marginalized groups, such as racial minorities and women, in areas of employment, education, and other spheres of society where they have been underrepresented. It is a proactive approach to promoting equal opportunity and diversity.
Assimilation: Assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups of differing ethnic heritage are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. It involves the adoption of the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture, to the point where the assimilating group becomes indistinguishable from that culture.
Assimilation: Assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups of a minority culture adopt the cultural traits, values, and behaviors of the dominant culture, often losing their distinct cultural identity in the process. This term is particularly relevant in the context of prejudice, discrimination, intergroup relationships, and the study of race and ethnicity in the United States.
Black Panthers: The Black Panthers, also known as the Black Panther Party, was a revolutionary black nationalist and socialist organization that was active in the United States from 1966 to 1982. The group was founded to address issues of racial discrimination and inequality faced by African Americans.
Chinese Exclusion Act: The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law enacted in 1882 that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers to the country. It was the first significant law that restricted immigration to the U.S. and remained in effect until its repeal in 1943.
Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Movement was a long-lasting struggle by African Americans and their allies to end racial discrimination and secure equal rights and opportunities under the law. It was a pivotal social movement that transformed American society by challenging deeply entrenched systems of racism, prejudice, and inequality.
Color-Avoidance Racism: Color-avoidance racism is a form of racial discrimination that arises from pretending race and color do not exist, thereby ignoring the impacts of racism and the experiences of people of color. It operates under the guise of "colorblindness," often resulting in the perpetuation of racial inequalities by failing to address and confront them.
Colorism: Colorism is a form of prejudice or discrimination against individuals with a dark skin tone, typically among people of the same ethnic or racial group. It prioritizes lighter skin tones over darker ones, impacting individuals' opportunities and societal treatment.
Colorism: Colorism is a form of prejudice and discrimination that favors lighter-skinned individuals over their darker-skinned counterparts, often within the same racial or ethnic group. It is a complex issue that intersects with broader concepts of race, ethnicity, and minority group dynamics.
Conflict theory: Conflict theory is a framework in sociology that emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. It suggests that society is in a state of perpetual conflict due to competition for limited resources.
Conflict Theory: Conflict theory is a sociological perspective that views society as a constant struggle between competing groups for power, resources, and status. It emphasizes how social structures and institutions are shaped by the conflicts and tensions between different social groups, such as those based on class, race, gender, or other divisions.
Critical Race Theory: Critical race theory (CRT) is a framework for examining and challenging the ways in which race and racism are deeply embedded in American society, institutions, and legal systems. It focuses on understanding how racial inequalities are perpetuated and how power structures maintain racial hierarchies.
Ethnic Identity: Ethnic identity refers to an individual's sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, which is often characterized by shared cultural traditions, language, history, values, and beliefs. It is a crucial aspect of one's overall identity and self-concept, shaping how individuals perceive themselves and their place within a diverse society.
Functionalist Perspective: The functionalist perspective is a theoretical framework in sociology that views society as a complex system with interconnected parts, each of which serves a specific function to maintain the overall stability and order of the system. This perspective emphasizes the role of social institutions, structures, and processes in meeting the functional needs of society.
Great Migration: The Great Migration was a massive movement of African Americans from the rural Southern United States to the urban centers of the North, Midwest, and West that occurred in two waves from 1916 to 1970. This large-scale internal migration of over 6 million people was driven by the desire to escape racial oppression, seek economic opportunities, and improve living conditions.
Immigration and Nationality Act: The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) is a federal law that governs immigration and naturalization policies in the United States. It establishes the legal framework for determining who is allowed to enter, live, and work in the country, as well as the process for becoming a U.S. citizen.
Institutional Racism: Institutional racism refers to the systemic and pervasive discrimination against people of color that is embedded within the policies, practices, and structures of social institutions. It is a form of racism that is perpetuated through the normal operations and procedures of various organizations and systems in society.
Intersectional Analysis: Intersectional analysis is a theoretical framework that examines how different forms of social identity, such as race, class, gender, sexuality, disability, and age, intersect and create unique experiences of privilege and oppression. It explores how these intersecting identities shape an individual's lived experiences and social positioning within systems of power and inequality.
Jim Crow Era: The Jim Crow era refers to the period in American history, primarily from the late 19th to mid-20th century, when state and local laws enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. This system of legalized discrimination and oppression against African Americans had far-reaching implications for prejudice, discrimination, and the overall racial dynamics in the country.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was a prominent African American leader during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. He was a vocal advocate for Black empowerment, self-determination, and social justice, and his influential speeches and writings challenged the systemic racism and oppression faced by African Americans.
Malcolm X's life and legacy are closely tied to the context of race and ethnicity in the United States, as he played a crucial role in shaping the discourse around racial identity, Black nationalism, and the fight for equality.
Mass Incarceration: Mass incarceration refers to the unprecedented rise in the number of individuals imprisoned in the United States, particularly among racial and ethnic minority groups. This phenomenon is closely tied to the disproportionate representation of these populations within the criminal justice system.
Microaggressions: Microaggressions are brief, commonplace, and often unintentional verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities that communicate negative or derogatory messages about a person's race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or other identity. These subtle, sometimes unconscious, comments or actions can have a significant impact on individuals and contribute to the perpetuation of systemic inequalities.
Model minority: A model minority is a demographic group (whether based on ethnicity, race, or nationality) perceived to achieve a higher degree of socioeconomic success than the population average. This concept often involves stereotypes that suggest this group faces fewer social issues.
Model Minority: The term 'model minority' refers to a minority ethnic or racial group that is perceived to have achieved a high level of socioeconomic success, often through hard work, discipline, and educational attainment. This concept is typically associated with certain Asian American communities in the United States.
National Origins Act: The National Origins Act was a series of laws enacted in the United States in the 1920s that significantly restricted immigration, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe. This legislation aimed to maintain the existing ethnic composition of the American population by imposing national origin quotas on the number of immigrants allowed to enter the country.
Racial Profiling: Racial profiling refers to the discriminatory practice of law enforcement or security personnel targeting individuals for suspicion of crime based on the individual's race, ethnicity, religion, or national origin. It is a form of institutional racism that disproportionately impacts marginalized communities.
Racial Stratification: Racial stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of different racial and ethnic groups within a society, where some groups are systematically advantaged or disadvantaged in terms of access to resources, opportunities, and social status. It is a key concept in understanding the dynamics of race and ethnicity in the United States.
Racism: Racism is a belief or ideology that attributes specific and/or inherent qualities, characteristics, or abilities to people based solely on their race or ethnicity. It often involves the belief that one race is superior to others and can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and the unfair treatment of individuals or groups. Racism is a complex and multifaceted concept that is deeply intertwined with issues of social stratification, minority groups, prejudice, and the historical and contemporary experiences of race and ethnicity in the United States.
Reconstruction: Reconstruction refers to the period in American history following the Civil War, during which the federal government sought to reintegrate the Confederate states back into the Union and address the social, economic, and political challenges posed by the end of slavery. This process was marked by significant changes and debates surrounding the rights and status of freed slaves, the role of the federal government, and the future direction of the nation.
Redlining: Redlining is the discriminatory practice by which banks, insurance companies, and other institutions refuse or limit loans, mortgages, insurance, or other financial services in certain neighborhoods based on racial or ethnic composition without regard to the residents' qualifications or creditworthiness. It historically contributed to racial segregation and the economic disparities seen between different racial and ethnic communities.
Redlining: Redlining is the discriminatory practice of denying or limiting financial services, such as mortgages, loans, or insurance, to certain neighborhoods based on their racial or ethnic composition. This term is closely connected to the topics of racial, ethnic, and minority groups, theoretical perspectives on race and ethnicity, race and ethnicity in the United States, and work in the United States.
Segregation: Segregation is the enforced separation of different racial or ethnic groups within a community, society, or organization. It often involves the use of laws, policies, or actions that spatially divide people based on racial or ethnic characteristics.
Segregation: Segregation refers to the physical, social, and institutional separation of different racial, ethnic, or minority groups within a society. It involves the intentional division and isolation of these groups, often leading to unequal access to resources, opportunities, and rights.
Symbolic interactionism: Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on how individuals interpret and give meaning to symbols, actions, and interactions within society. It emphasizes the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors.
Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on the symbolic meaning people develop and rely upon in the process of social interaction. It emphasizes how individuals interpret and attach meaning to the world around them, and how these interpretations influence their behavior and interactions with others.
Systemic racism: Systemic racism encompasses the policies and practices entrenched in established institutions that harm certain racial groups while benefiting others. It manifests in areas such as criminal justice, employment, housing, health care, political power, and education.
Systemic Racism: Systemic racism refers to the complex and interconnected systems, policies, practices, and attitudes that perpetuate racial inequalities and disparities across various societal institutions. It is a pervasive and deeply embedded form of racism that goes beyond individual prejudices or discriminatory actions.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation and movement of Native American nations from southeastern parts of the United States following the Indian Removal Act of 1830. This forced displacement led to the death of thousands of Native Americans due to exposure, disease, and starvation during the journey.
Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent right of Native American tribes to govern themselves and exercise control over their own affairs. It is a fundamental principle that recognizes the unique political status of indigenous nations within the United States.
W.E.B. Du Bois: W.E.B. Du Bois was an influential African American sociologist, historian, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, who made significant contributions to the understanding of race, racism, and the experiences of Black Americans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
White privilege: White privilege is the systemic and societal advantages that benefit white people beyond what is commonly experienced by people of other racial and ethnic groups under the same social, political, or economic circumstances. It encompasses unearned benefits and rights afforded to white individuals due to their race.
White Privilege: White privilege refers to the unearned advantages and benefits that individuals with white skin color enjoy in society, often without being fully aware of them. It is a concept that highlights the systemic and institutional advantages that white people possess compared to other racial groups.
Xenophobia: Xenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners, stemming from a perception of them as an external threat to a country's culture, economy, or social order. In the context of globalization and the economy, it can manifest in opposition to international collaboration, immigration, and foreign investment.
Xenophobia: Xenophobia is the fear, hatred, or prejudice against people or cultures perceived as foreign or different. It is a key concept in understanding issues of racial, ethnic, and minority group dynamics, as well as the broader themes of prejudice, discrimination, and racism in society.