🥇International Economics Unit 15 – Current Issues in International Economics

Key Concepts and Theories

• Comparative advantage suggests countries should specialize in producing goods and services they can produce at a lower opportunity cost than other countries
• Absolute advantage refers to a country's ability to produce a particular good or service more efficiently than another country
• Heckscher-Ohlin model emphasizes the role of factor endowments (land, labor, and capital) in determining trade patterns between countries
  • Countries tend to export goods that intensively use their relatively abundant factors of production
  • Countries tend to import goods that intensively use their relatively scarce factors of production
• Gravity model of trade predicts bilateral trade flows based on the economic sizes and distance between two countries
• New trade theory accounts for the role of economies of scale, product differentiation, and imperfect competition in international trade
• Intra-industry trade involves the exchange of similar products belonging to the same industry between countries (automobiles)
• Leontief paradox highlights the observation that the United States, despite being capital-abundant, exported more labor-intensive goods and imported more capital-intensive goods

Global Economic Landscape

• Globalization has led to increased interconnectedness of economies through trade, investment, and technology transfer
• Global value chains involve the fragmentation of production processes across different countries, with each country specializing in specific tasks or components
• Multinational corporations (MNCs) play a significant role in shaping the global economic landscape through foreign direct investment (FDI) and technology transfer
• Trade liberalization efforts, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trade agreements, have reduced trade barriers and promoted global economic integration
  • WTO provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements and resolving trade disputes among its member countries
• Economic inequality remains a persistent challenge, with the benefits of globalization not being evenly distributed within and across countries
• Environmental concerns, such as climate change and resource depletion, have gained prominence in the global economic discourse
• The rise of the digital economy, driven by advancements in information and communication technologies, is transforming global business models and trade patterns

Trade Policies and Agreements

• Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods to protect domestic industries and generate revenue for the government
  • Ad valorem tariffs are expressed as a percentage of the value of the imported good
  • Specific tariffs are expressed as a fixed amount per unit of the imported good
• Non-tariff barriers (NTBs) include quotas, subsidies, and regulations that restrict or discourage imports
• Free trade agreements (FTAs) eliminate or reduce trade barriers between participating countries (NAFTA, EU-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement)
• Preferential trade agreements (PTAs) provide preferential access to certain products from participating countries, often in the form of reduced tariffs
• Trade remedies, such as anti-dumping duties and countervailing duties, are used to address unfair trade practices by foreign exporters
• Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) allows developed countries to grant preferential tariff treatment to imports from developing countries
• Trade facilitation measures aim to simplify and harmonize international trade procedures to reduce costs and improve efficiency

Currency Markets and Exchange Rates

• Exchange rates determine the value of one currency in terms of another and play a crucial role in international trade and investment
• Floating exchange rates are determined by market forces of supply and demand, with minimal government intervention
  • Appreciation occurs when the value of a currency increases relative to another currency
  • Depreciation occurs when the value of a currency decreases relative to another currency
• Fixed exchange rates are pegged to another currency or a basket of currencies, with the central bank intervening to maintain the peg
• Managed float exchange rates allow for some market flexibility while the central bank intervenes to influence the exchange rate
• Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory suggests that exchange rates should adjust to equalize the prices of identical goods and services across countries
• Currency manipulation refers to the deliberate actions taken by governments to influence the value of their currency to gain a competitive advantage in international trade
• Exchange rate volatility can impact the profitability and competitiveness of exporters and importers

International Financial Institutions

• International Monetary Fund (IMF) promotes global monetary cooperation, financial stability, and provides financial assistance to countries facing balance of payments difficulties
  • IMF conducts surveillance of member countries' economic policies and provides policy advice
  • IMF provides loans to countries experiencing financial crises, subject to certain conditions and reforms
• World Bank Group focuses on poverty reduction and economic development in developing countries
  • International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) provides loans and technical assistance to middle-income and creditworthy low-income countries
  • International Development Association (IDA) provides concessional loans and grants to the poorest countries
• Regional development banks, such as the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the African Development Bank (AfDB), provide financing and technical assistance for development projects in their respective regions
• Bank for International Settlements (BIS) serves as a bank for central banks and promotes international monetary and financial cooperation
• Paris Club is an informal group of official creditors that coordinates solutions for debtor countries facing payment difficulties

Emerging Markets and Developing Economies

• Emerging markets are countries with rapidly growing economies and increasing integration into the global economy (China, India, Brazil)
  • Emerging markets often experience higher economic growth rates compared to developed economies
  • Emerging markets may face challenges such as institutional weaknesses, income inequality, and vulnerability to external shocks
• Developing economies are countries with lower levels of economic development and per capita income
• Foreign direct investment (FDI) plays a significant role in the economic growth and development of emerging markets and developing economies
  • FDI can bring capital, technology, and managerial expertise to host countries
  • FDI can also lead to positive spillover effects, such as knowledge transfer and increased competition
• Infrastructure development is crucial for the economic growth and competitiveness of emerging markets and developing economies
• Human capital development, including education and skills training, is essential for long-term economic growth and development
• Inclusive growth strategies aim to ensure that the benefits of economic growth are widely shared among the population

Economic Crises and Recovery

• Global financial crisis of 2008-2009 originated in the United States housing market and spread to the global economy, leading to a severe recession
  • Subprime mortgage crisis and the collapse of the housing bubble triggered a liquidity crisis in the banking system
  • Lehman Brothers' bankruptcy in September 2008 intensified the financial crisis and led to a global economic downturn
• European debt crisis emerged in 2009 as several European countries (Greece, Ireland, Portugal) faced high levels of public debt and difficulty in repaying or refinancing their debt
  • Austerity measures, such as spending cuts and tax increases, were implemented to address the debt crisis
  • European Central Bank (ECB) implemented unconventional monetary policies, such as quantitative easing, to support the economy
• Sovereign debt restructuring involves the renegotiation of the terms of a country's debt to make it more manageable (Argentina, Greece)
• Economic stimulus measures, such as increased government spending and tax cuts, are used to boost aggregate demand and promote economic recovery during crises
• Unconventional monetary policies, such as quantitative easing and negative interest rates, have been used by central banks to support economic recovery and maintain financial stability

Future Trends and Challenges

• Technological advancements, such as artificial intelligence and automation, are expected to transform labor markets and international trade patterns
  • Automation may lead to job displacement in certain sectors, while creating new opportunities in others
  • Digital platforms and e-commerce are changing the nature of cross-border trade and enabling small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to participate in global markets
• Climate change and environmental sustainability are becoming increasingly important considerations in international economic policies and business decisions
  • Transition to a low-carbon economy requires significant investments in renewable energy and green technologies
  • Carbon pricing mechanisms, such as carbon taxes and emissions trading schemes, are being implemented to incentivize the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
• Demographic shifts, such as aging populations in developed countries and growing youth populations in developing countries, present both challenges and opportunities for the global economy
• Rising income inequality and the need for inclusive growth are key challenges facing policymakers and international organizations
• Geopolitical tensions and trade disputes, such as the US-China trade war, can disrupt global supply chains and create uncertainty in the global economic environment
• The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of resilient global supply chains and the need for international cooperation in addressing global health and economic crises