2.1 Realist Perspectives on International Conflict
4 min read•august 7, 2024
Realism paints a grim picture of global politics. It sees a world where countries are locked in a constant struggle for power and security. With no higher authority to keep the peace, nations must fend for themselves in a dog-eat-dog world.
This view shapes how realists think about conflict. They believe countries act in their own interests, often at the expense of others. Power is the name of the game, and countries will do what it takes to come out on top.
Anarchy and Power in the International System
The Anarchic Nature of the International System
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- refers to the absence of a central governing authority above sovereign states in the international system
- The international system lacks a supreme authority to enforce rules, settle disputes, or protect states from aggression
- States must rely on their own capabilities and strategies to survive and advance their interests in an anarchic environment
- The absence of a higher authority leads to a where states prioritize their own security and power
Balancing Power in an Anarchic System
- is a key concept in realist theory that explains how states respond to the distribution of power in the international system
- States seek to prevent any single state from becoming too powerful and dominating the system by forming alliances, building up military capabilities, or engaging in other balancing behaviors
- The balance of power can be maintained through external balancing (forming alliances) or internal balancing (increasing domestic military capabilities)
- Examples of balance of power dynamics include the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and the shifting alliances in Europe prior to
Power Politics and State Behavior
- refers to the realist view that states prioritize the pursuit and exercise of power in their foreign policy decisions
- States are primarily concerned with maximizing their relative power capabilities, such as military strength, economic resources, and political influence
- The distribution of power among states shapes their behavior and interactions, with more powerful states having greater influence and leverage in international affairs
- Examples of power politics include , , and
Realist Approaches to National Security
The Primacy of National Interest
- Realists argue that states prioritize their , which is defined in terms of power, security, and survival
- The national interest guides state behavior and decision-making in international relations, often superseding other considerations such as ideology, morality, or international law
- States pursue policies that enhance their power capabilities, protect their territorial integrity, and secure their vital interests
- Examples of national interest-driven policies include military interventions, economic sanctions, and
The Security Dilemma
- The refers to the paradox that arises when states take actions to increase their own security, which can be perceived as threatening by other states, leading to a spiral of insecurity
- States are uncertain about the intentions of others and must assume the worst to ensure their own survival, leading to a cycle of arms buildups, mistrust, and potential conflict
- The security dilemma can lead to unintended consequences, such as arms races, preemptive strikes, and the formation of rival alliances
- Examples of the security dilemma include the naval arms race between Britain and Germany before World War I and the nuclear arms race during the Cold War
Offensive and Defensive Realism
- , associated with John Mearsheimer, argues that states seek to maximize their relative power and achieve hegemony in the international system
- Offensive realists believe that the anarchic structure of the international system encourages states to pursue expansionist policies and take advantage of opportunities to increase their power
- , associated with , argues that states primarily seek to maintain their security and survival in an anarchic system
- Defensive realists believe that states are more concerned with preserving the balance of power and avoiding threats to their security, rather than seeking hegemony
- Examples of offensive realist behavior include Nazi Germany's expansionist policies in the 1930s, while defensive realist behavior can be seen in the United States' containment strategy during the Cold War
Realist Decision-Making
The Rational Actor Model
- The is a decision-making framework that assumes states are unitary actors that make calculated, rational choices based on a cost-benefit analysis
- States are assumed to have consistent, ordered preferences and to choose the course of action that maximizes their expected utility or benefits while minimizing costs and risks
- The rational actor model emphasizes the role of strategic calculation, information processing, and the pursuit of national interest in foreign policy decision-making
- Critics argue that the model overlooks the role of domestic politics, bureaucratic processes, and individual leaders' perceptions and biases in shaping foreign policy decisions
- Examples of the rational actor model in practice include the U.S. decision to invade Iraq in 2003 based on a calculation of the costs and benefits of removing Saddam Hussein's regime
Key Terms to Review (19)
Anarchy: Anarchy refers to a state of disorder due to the absence or non-recognition of authority, particularly in the context of international relations where there is no overarching power to enforce rules. In this environment, states operate independently and prioritize their own interests, leading to a self-help system where survival becomes paramount. The concept is central to understanding the dynamics of power, security, and conflict among nations, as states navigate their actions without a global governing body.
Arms Races: An arms race is a competitive increase in military capabilities between two or more states, where each side seeks to gain an advantage over the other through the accumulation and enhancement of weapons and military technology. This phenomenon is often fueled by mistrust, perceived threats, and the desire for security, leading to a cycle of escalation where states continuously develop and deploy more advanced military capabilities.
Balance of power: Balance of power refers to a system in international relations where countries maintain equilibrium in their power capabilities to prevent any one nation from becoming too dominant. This concept is crucial in understanding how states interact, manage conflict, and influence global stability by forming alliances, counterbalancing threats, and ensuring mutual security.
Coercive Diplomacy: Coercive diplomacy is a strategy that uses threats and limited force to persuade an adversary to change its behavior or policy without resorting to full-scale military action. This approach typically aims to leverage the credibility of military power and economic sanctions to compel compliance while avoiding the costs of war. The effectiveness of coercive diplomacy often hinges on the ability to communicate resolve and the willingness to impose costs on the adversary if they fail to comply.
Cold War: The Cold War was a prolonged period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States, along with their respective allies, from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. This era was characterized by ideological conflict, military rivalry, and a series of proxy wars, but it did not result in direct large-scale fighting between the two superpowers. The Cold War influenced various aspects of international relations, including military alliances, economic policies, and the proliferation of nuclear weapons.
Defensive Realism: Defensive realism is a theory in international relations that suggests states are primarily motivated by the need to ensure their own security and maintain their sovereignty. This perspective posits that rather than seeking aggressive expansion, states prioritize defensive measures to protect themselves from potential threats, emphasizing a balance of power as a way to prevent conflict. It contrasts with offensive realism, which argues that states pursue aggressive policies to maximize their power and influence.
Great power competition: Great power competition refers to the geopolitical rivalry and strategic interactions between major world powers, typically characterized by military, economic, and political tensions. This term is often associated with the struggle for dominance and influence in global affairs, where nations seek to assert their interests and expand their power relative to one another.
Hans Morgenthau: Hans Morgenthau was a prominent political scientist and one of the founding figures of the realist school of thought in international relations. His work emphasized the importance of power and national interest in shaping international politics, arguing that moral principles should not overshadow the realities of power dynamics. Morgenthau's ideas significantly influenced both theoretical frameworks and practical approaches to understanding international conflict.
Kenneth Waltz: Kenneth Waltz was a prominent political scientist known for his contributions to the field of international relations, particularly through his development of the theory of structural realism. His ideas emphasize the importance of the international system's structure in shaping state behavior, highlighting that states act in a self-interested manner due to the anarchic nature of the international system, which is crucial for understanding various aspects of conflict and security.
Military Capability: Military capability refers to the ability of a state or entity to effectively employ its military forces to achieve strategic objectives, including the capacity to deter threats, project power, and conduct military operations. This concept encompasses various elements, such as the size of armed forces, technological advancements, training, logistics, and the overall readiness of military units. It is crucial for understanding how states interact and respond to potential conflicts in an international system characterized by competition and power dynamics.
National interest: National interest refers to the strategic goals and objectives of a nation, encompassing economic, military, cultural, and political dimensions that a country prioritizes to ensure its survival and well-being. This concept is crucial for understanding how countries engage in international relations and conflicts, as it shapes their actions and policies on the global stage.
Offensive realism: Offensive realism is a theory in international relations that posits that states are inherently power-seeking and will act aggressively to maximize their influence and security in an anarchic international system. This perspective emphasizes that the structure of the international system compels states to pursue expansionist policies, often leading to conflicts and competition among them.
Power politics: Power politics refers to a framework within international relations where states prioritize their national interests and the acquisition of power, often through competition and conflict. This approach emphasizes the anarchic nature of the international system, where no central authority exists, leading states to act in self-interest to ensure their survival and maintain or enhance their power relative to others.
Rational Actor Model: The rational actor model is a framework for understanding decision-making in international relations, where states are viewed as rational entities that make choices to maximize their interests based on available information. This model assumes that decision-makers weigh the costs and benefits of various options to arrive at the most advantageous course of action, which directly relates to understanding state behavior and strategies in conflict situations.
Security Dilemma: The security dilemma refers to a situation in international relations where actions taken by a state to increase its own security can inadvertently threaten the security of other states, leading to an escalation of tensions and an arms race. This concept highlights how efforts to protect oneself can lead to increased insecurity for others, creating a cycle of distrust and conflict. The dilemma emphasizes the challenges that states face when seeking to balance their own security needs with the perceptions and reactions of others.
Self-Help System: A self-help system refers to the concept in international relations where states prioritize their own security and survival in an anarchic international system. In this context, states cannot rely on a higher authority for protection, which leads them to take unilateral actions to safeguard their interests and maintain sovereignty. This notion is central to realist perspectives, as it underscores the idea that the international arena is characterized by competition and distrust among states.
Strategic Partnerships: Strategic partnerships are collaborative agreements between two or more entities, typically states or organizations, aimed at achieving specific goals while leveraging each other's strengths and resources. These partnerships are often formed to enhance security, economic development, or political influence in a competitive international environment, reflecting the realist perspective on power dynamics and state interests.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, involving many of the world's great powers divided into two opposing alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers. This war marked a significant turning point in international relations, leading to the collapse of empires, redrawing of national borders, and setting the stage for future conflicts.
World War II: World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations divided into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. This war fundamentally reshaped international relations and conflicts in the 20th century, illustrating the complex interplay between national interests, ideological battles, and the struggle for power on a global scale.