🧃Intermediate Microeconomic Theory Unit 12 – International Trade & Comparative Advantage

Key Concepts and Definitions

• International trade involves the exchange of goods, services, and capital across national borders
• Comparative advantage refers to a country's ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country
• Absolute advantage means a country can produce a good using fewer resources than another country
• Terms of trade represent the ratio at which a country can trade domestic products for imported products
• Autarky is a state of economic self-sufficiency and limited trade with other countries
• Trade barriers include tariffs, quotas, and non-tariff barriers that restrict or limit international trade
• Free trade agreements (FTAs) are pacts between countries to reduce trade barriers and promote trade
  • Examples of FTAs include NAFTA, EU, and ASEAN

Historical Context of International Trade

• Trade has existed since ancient times, with early examples like the Silk Road facilitating the exchange of goods between Asia and Europe
• The Age of Exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries expanded trade routes and introduced new goods to different regions
• The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries led to increased production and trade of manufactured goods
• Globalization in the 20th century has accelerated international trade through advancements in transportation, communication, and technology
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995 to oversee and regulate international trade
• Regional trade blocs (EU, NAFTA, ASEAN) have formed to promote trade and economic integration among member countries
• The 2008 global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic have highlighted the interconnectedness and vulnerabilities of global trade

Comparative Advantage Theory

• Developed by David Ricardo in the early 19th century
• States that countries should specialize in producing goods for which they have a comparative advantage
• Comparative advantage is determined by the opportunity cost of production
  • Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative foregone when making a decision
• Countries should export goods they can produce at a lower opportunity cost and import goods they produce at a higher opportunity cost
• Specialization and trade based on comparative advantage lead to increased overall output and welfare for all countries involved
• The theory assumes perfect competition, no trade barriers, and no transportation costs
• Limitations of the theory include its simplifying assumptions and its focus on labor productivity as the sole determinant of comparative advantage

Absolute Advantage vs. Comparative Advantage

• Absolute advantage refers to a country's ability to produce a good using fewer resources than another country
• Comparative advantage considers the opportunity cost of production and specialization
• A country can have an absolute advantage in producing all goods but still benefit from specialization and trade based on comparative advantage
• Example: Country A can produce both wheat and cloth more efficiently than Country B, but Country B has a lower opportunity cost in producing cloth. Country B should specialize in cloth production and trade with Country A
• Comparative advantage is a more relevant concept in international trade theory, as it explains the benefits of specialization and trade even when one country is more efficient in producing all goods

Trade Models and Patterns

• The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage based on differences in labor productivity between countries
• The Heckscher-Ohlin model emphasizes differences in factor endowments (land, labor, capital) as the basis for trade
  • Countries export goods that intensively use their abundant factors and import goods that intensively use their scarce factors
• The gravity model predicts trade flows based on the economic sizes and distances between countries
• Intra-industry trade involves the exchange of similar products within the same industry (cars, electronics)
• Inter-industry trade involves the exchange of different products across industries (exporting agricultural goods and importing manufactured goods)
• Global value chains involve the fragmentation of production processes across different countries
• Trade patterns can be influenced by factors such as geography, culture, trade agreements, and economic development

Benefits and Drawbacks of International Trade

Benefits:

• Increased efficiency and productivity through specialization based on comparative advantage
• Access to a wider variety of goods and services for consumers
• Lower prices due to increased competition and economies of scale
• Economic growth and job creation in export-oriented industries
• Knowledge and technology spillovers from exposure to foreign markets and practices

Drawbacks:

• Structural unemployment in import-competing industries
• Increased income inequality, as gains from trade may not be evenly distributed
• Dependence on foreign suppliers for critical goods and services
• Environmental and social concerns, such as carbon emissions from transportation and labor standards in developing countries
• Trade deficits and currency fluctuations can create economic instability

Policy Implications and Trade Agreements

• Trade policies can be used to promote or restrict international trade
  • Examples include tariffs, quotas, subsidies, and non-tariff barriers
• Trade liberalization involves reducing or removing trade barriers to promote free trade
• Trade protectionism involves implementing policies to shield domestic industries from foreign competition
• Trade agreements (FTAs, customs unions) aim to reduce trade barriers and promote economic integration among member countries
• The WTO provides a framework for negotiating trade agreements and resolving trade disputes
• Trade policies can be influenced by various stakeholders (industries, labor unions, consumers, environmental groups)
• Balancing the benefits and drawbacks of trade policies requires careful consideration of economic, social, and political factors

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• The US-China trade war (2018-2021) involved tariffs and trade tensions between the world's two largest economies
• Brexit refers to the UK's withdrawal from the European Union, which has implications for trade and economic relations
• The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a trade agreement aiming to create a single market for goods and services in Africa
• The US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) replaced NAFTA in 2020, with updated provisions on trade, labor, and the environment
• The EU's common market and trade policies have contributed to economic integration and growth among its member states
• The rise of e-commerce and digital trade has created new opportunities and challenges for international trade
• Case studies of successful export-oriented development strategies (South Korea, Singapore) and the challenges of trade-driven growth (resource curse, Dutch disease)