Forced adoption and child removal policies have devastated Indigenous communities worldwide. Governments and religious organizations systematically separated children from their families, aiming to erase Indigenous identity and assimilate them into dominant cultures.
These policies caused immense trauma, cultural loss, and intergenerational harm. Despite this, Indigenous communities have shown resilience through advocacy, legal challenges, and cultural revitalization efforts. processes are now addressing past wrongs and supporting healing.
Forced adoption policies
Forced adoption policies involved the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families and communities, placing them with non-Indigenous families
These policies were implemented by governments and religious organizations in various countries, including the United States, Canada, and Australia
The goal was to assimilate Indigenous children into the dominant culture and erase their Indigenous identity
Reasons for implementation
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Top images from around the web for Reasons for implementation
In Bolsonaro’s Brazil, indigenous groups are struggling for basic human rights : Peoples Dispatch View original
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Revisiting the “Sixties Scoop” of Indigenous children View original
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In Bolsonaro’s Brazil, indigenous groups are struggling for basic human rights : Peoples Dispatch View original
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Belief that Indigenous families were unfit to raise their children due to poverty, cultural differences, and prejudice
Assumption that Indigenous children would have better opportunities if raised in non-Indigenous families
Desire to "civilize" and Christianize Indigenous populations by removing children from their traditional ways of life
Government policies aimed at breaking up Indigenous communities and weakening their cultural and social structures
Impact on Indigenous families
Separation of children from their parents, siblings, and extended family members, causing immense grief and trauma
Loss of cultural knowledge, language, and traditions as children were raised in non-Indigenous households
Disruption of family and community bonds, leading to a breakdown in social and cultural continuity
Feelings of shame, guilt, and disconnection among Indigenous parents and communities who were unable to protect their children
Long-term consequences
passed down to subsequent generations, affecting mental health, family dynamics, and cultural identity
Difficulty in reconnecting with birth families and communities later in life, leading to identity crises and a sense of not belonging
Higher rates of substance abuse, depression, and suicide among Indigenous people who were adopted or their descendants
Ongoing mistrust and resentment towards government authorities and institutions due to the legacy of forced adoptions
Child removal policies
Child removal policies involved the systematic removal of Indigenous children from their families and communities by government authorities
These policies were often justified as a means of protecting children from neglect or abuse, but in reality, they were rooted in colonial attitudes and a desire to assimilate Indigenous populations
Child removal policies have had devastating and long-lasting impacts on Indigenous families and communities
Historical context
Child removal policies have been implemented in various countries with Indigenous populations, including the United States, Canada, and Australia
In the United States, the (ICWA) was passed in 1978 to address the disproportionate removal of Native American children from their families
In Canada, the "" refers to the widespread removal of Indigenous children from their families during the 1960s and 1970s, placing them in non-Indigenous foster homes or adoptive families
In Australia, the "" refers to the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families between 1910 and 1970
Government justifications
Belief that Indigenous families were unable to properly care for their children due to poverty, cultural differences, and social issues
Assumption that removing children from their families and placing them in non-Indigenous homes would provide them with better opportunities and a higher standard of living
Justification that child removal was necessary to protect children from neglect, abuse, or unhealthy living conditions in Indigenous communities
Use of child welfare policies as a tool for assimilation and , aiming to erase Indigenous identity and integrate children into the dominant society
Trauma and cultural loss
Separation from family, community, and culture led to profound feelings of loss, grief, and disconnection among Indigenous children
Many children experienced abuse, neglect, and mistreatment in the foster care system or adoptive homes, compounding their trauma
Loss of language, cultural knowledge, and traditional practices as children were raised in non-Indigenous environments
Difficulty in reconnecting with birth families and communities later in life, leading to identity crises and a sense of not belonging
Intergenerational trauma passed down to subsequent generations, affecting mental health, family dynamics, and cultural continuity
Residential school system
The residential school system was a network of government-funded, church-run schools that operated in Canada, the United States, and other countries with the goal of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant culture
Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities and placed in these schools, where they were prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
The residential school system has had devastating and long-lasting impacts on Indigenous communities, with many survivors experiencing trauma, abuse, and cultural loss
Assimilation goals
The primary goal of the residential school system was to assimilate Indigenous children into the dominant culture and erase their Indigenous identity
Children were forced to adopt European names, clothing, and customs, and were punished for speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
The curriculum focused on teaching European values, religion, and ways of life, while denigrating Indigenous cultures and belief systems
The ultimate aim was to "kill the Indian in the child" and create a new generation of Indigenous people who were fully integrated into the dominant society
Abuse and neglect
Many Indigenous children experienced physical, sexual, and emotional abuse at the hands of school staff and administrators
Neglect was also common, with children often being underfed, poorly clothed, and living in unsanitary conditions
Diseases such as tuberculosis and influenza spread rapidly in the overcrowded and poorly ventilated schools, leading to high rates of illness and death among students
The abuse and neglect experienced in has had long-lasting impacts on survivors, including post-traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, and difficulty forming healthy relationships
Intergenerational impacts
The trauma experienced by residential school survivors has been passed down to subsequent generations, affecting the mental health and well-being of Indigenous communities
Many survivors have struggled with parenting and family relationships due to the lack of positive role models and the disruption of traditional family structures
The loss of language and cultural knowledge has made it difficult for younger generations to connect with their heritage and identity
The legacy of the residential school system has contributed to ongoing social issues in Indigenous communities, such as high rates of poverty, substance abuse, and suicide
Indigenous resistance
Despite the devastating impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies, Indigenous communities have demonstrated incredible resilience and resistance in the face of these challenges
Indigenous people have fought back against these policies through advocacy, activism, legal challenges, and cultural revitalization efforts
These efforts have been critical in raising awareness about the harms caused by these policies and in seeking justice and healing for Indigenous communities
Advocacy and activism
Indigenous organizations and activists have worked tirelessly to raise awareness about the impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
They have advocated for the rights of Indigenous children and families, and have pushed for changes to government policies and practices
Grassroots movements such as the "Idle No More" campaign in Canada have brought attention to ongoing issues facing Indigenous communities, including the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system
International advocacy efforts have also been important in raising awareness about these issues on a global scale
Legal challenges
Indigenous communities have used legal challenges to fight against forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
In the United States, the Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) was passed in 1978 in response to advocacy efforts by Native American organizations and leaders
In Canada, class action lawsuits have been filed on behalf of residential school survivors, leading to the establishment of the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement in 2007
Legal challenges have also been used to assert Indigenous rights and , and to hold governments accountable for past harms
Reclaiming cultural practices
Indigenous communities have worked to reclaim and revitalize their cultural practices and traditions in the face of assimilation policies
Language revitalization programs have been established to teach younger generations their native languages and to preserve this critical aspect of cultural identity
Traditional healing practices, such as sweat lodges and talking circles, have been used to address the trauma and mental health impacts of these policies
Cultural camps and other programs have been developed to teach Indigenous youth about their heritage and to foster a sense of pride and connection to their communities
Truth and reconciliation
In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the need for truth and reconciliation processes to address the harms caused by forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
These processes involve acknowledging past wrongs, offering apologies and compensation to survivors and their families, and working towards healing and cultural revival
Truth and reconciliation efforts have been undertaken in various countries, including Canada, Australia, and the United States
Acknowledging past wrongs
Governments and institutions have begun to acknowledge the harms caused by forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
In Canada, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established in 2008 to document the experiences of residential school survivors and to make recommendations for reconciliation
The TRC's final report, released in 2015, included 94 calls to action aimed at addressing the legacy of residential schools and advancing reconciliation
Similar processes have been undertaken in Australia, with the National to the Stolen Generations in 2008 and the establishment of the Healing Foundation to support survivors and their families
Apologies and compensation
Formal apologies have been offered by governments and institutions for their role in forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
In Canada, Prime Minister Stephen Harper issued a formal apology to residential school survivors in 2008, acknowledging the harms caused by the system and the government's role in perpetuating it
Compensation packages have also been offered to survivors and their families as a means of acknowledging the harm caused and providing financial support for healing and recovery
The Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement in Canada included a common experience payment for all survivors, as well as additional compensation for those who experienced serious physical or sexual abuse
Healing and cultural revival
Truth and reconciliation processes have also focused on supporting healing and cultural revival for Indigenous communities
In Canada, the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement included funding for the establishment of the , which supported community-based healing initiatives
Cultural revitalization programs have been developed to help Indigenous people reconnect with their heritage and traditions, and to promote a sense of pride and resilience
Healing circles, traditional ceremonies, and other culturally-based approaches have been used to address the trauma and mental health impacts of these policies
Contemporary issues
Despite efforts towards truth and reconciliation, Indigenous communities continue to face ongoing challenges and barriers related to the legacy of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
These issues include the overrepresentation of Indigenous children in the child welfare system, as well as ongoing struggles with poverty, substance abuse, and mental health
Indigenous-led solutions and approaches are needed to address these challenges and to promote healing and resilience
Overrepresentation in child welfare
Indigenous children continue to be overrepresented in the child welfare system in many countries, including Canada, Australia, and the United States
In Canada, Indigenous children make up 7.7% of the child population but account for 52.2% of children in foster care
The reasons for this overrepresentation are complex and include ongoing poverty, intergenerational trauma, and systemic racism within the child welfare system
There is a need for culturally-appropriate and community-based approaches to child welfare that prioritize family preservation and cultural continuity
Ongoing challenges and barriers
Indigenous communities continue to face significant challenges related to poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education and healthcare
The legacy of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies has contributed to ongoing mental health issues, substance abuse, and family breakdown
Systemic racism and discrimination continue to be significant barriers to Indigenous people's full participation in society and access to opportunities
There is a need for ongoing support and resources to address these challenges and promote healing and resilience
Indigenous-led solutions
Indigenous communities are developing their own solutions and approaches to addressing the ongoing impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
These approaches prioritize cultural revitalization, community-based healing, and the empowerment of Indigenous people to take control of their own lives and futures
Examples include the development of Indigenous-led child and family services agencies, cultural camps and programs for youth, and community-based mental health and addiction services
There is a need for governments and institutions to support and invest in these Indigenous-led solutions, and to work in partnership with Indigenous communities to address ongoing challenges and promote reconciliation
International comparisons
Forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies have been implemented in various countries with Indigenous populations, including Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand
While there are similarities in the experiences of Indigenous communities across these countries, there are also unique aspects to each context that are important to consider
International comparisons can provide valuable lessons and best practices for addressing the ongoing impacts of these policies and promoting reconciliation
Similar policies in other countries
In Australia, the "Stolen Generations" refers to the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families between 1910 and 1970
In the United States, the and the Bureau of Indian Affairs' Indian had similar goals of assimilating Indigenous children into the dominant culture
In New Zealand, the Maori community has also experienced the impacts of child removal and cultural assimilation policies
These policies were all rooted in colonial attitudes and a belief in the superiority of European culture and ways of life
Unique aspects of each context
While there are similarities in the experiences of Indigenous communities across these countries, there are also unique aspects to each context that are important to consider
In Canada, the residential school system was a central component of the government's assimilation policy, and operated for over a century
In Australia, the "Stolen Generations" policies were implemented at the state level, and varied in their specific practices and timelines
In the United States, the Indian Adoption Project was a targeted effort to remove Native American children from their families and place them with non-Native adoptive families
These unique aspects highlight the importance of understanding the specific historical and cultural context of each country when addressing the impacts of these policies
Lessons and best practices
International comparisons can provide valuable lessons and best practices for addressing the ongoing impacts of forced adoption, child removal, and residential school policies
One key lesson is the importance of centering Indigenous voices and experiences in any truth and reconciliation process
Another best practice is the need for a holistic approach that addresses the intergenerational impacts of these policies, including the ongoing challenges related to poverty, mental health, and substance abuse
Governments and institutions must also be willing to acknowledge past harms and take concrete actions to support healing and reconciliation, including providing resources and support for Indigenous-led initiatives
Finally, there is a need for ongoing education and awareness-raising about the history and impacts of these policies, both within Indigenous communities and in the broader public discourse
Key Terms to Review (20)
Aboriginal Healing Foundation: The Aboriginal Healing Foundation was established in Canada in 1998 to support healing initiatives for Indigenous peoples affected by the legacy of residential schools. It aimed to promote healing through culturally appropriate programs and practices, recognizing the impact of forced assimilation and child removal policies on Indigenous communities. This foundation worked towards restoring cultural identity, fostering community healing, and addressing the intergenerational trauma caused by these historical injustices.
Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act: The Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act is a federal law enacted in 1980 aimed at promoting the adoption of children in foster care and ensuring their welfare. This act was a response to the high number of children being removed from their families and placed into foster care, addressing the need for supportive services to facilitate successful adoptions and improve the overall child welfare system.
Apology: An apology refers to an expression of regret or sorrow for actions that have caused harm or offense to others. In the context of forced adoption and child removal policies, an apology signifies a formal acknowledgment of the injustices faced by Indigenous peoples and the lasting impact these policies have had on families and communities. Such apologies can serve as an important step toward reconciliation, healing, and restoring trust between governments and Indigenous communities.
Boarding schools: Boarding schools were institutions established primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-American culture by removing them from their families and communities. These schools aimed to eradicate Indigenous identities, languages, and cultural practices, often using harsh discipline and a strict curriculum focused on Western values.
Case studies: Case studies are in-depth investigations of a particular individual, group, event, or phenomenon that are used to explore complex issues in real-world contexts. They offer detailed qualitative insights and allow researchers to understand the intricacies of situations, particularly regarding the impact of forced adoption and child removal policies on Indigenous communities.
Cindy Blackstock: Cindy Blackstock is a prominent Indigenous child welfare advocate and the Executive Director of the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada. She has been a leading voice in the fight against systemic discrimination faced by First Nations children in Canada, especially regarding forced adoption and child removal policies. Her work highlights the historical and ongoing impact of colonization on Indigenous families and seeks to promote equity and justice for Indigenous children in the welfare system.
Cultural Genocide: Cultural genocide refers to the deliberate destruction of a group’s culture, language, and identity through systematic means. It encompasses actions aimed at erasing the traditions, practices, and social structures that define a community, often as part of broader efforts to assimilate or eliminate that group. This term is critical when examining historical injustices faced by Indigenous peoples, revealing how policies and practices have sought to undermine their existence and heritage.
Family disintegration: Family disintegration refers to the breakdown or dissolution of familial structures and relationships, often resulting in the separation of family members and loss of support systems. This phenomenon can be exacerbated by external factors, such as government policies, societal pressures, and historical injustices that disproportionately affect certain communities.
Indian Adoption Project: The Indian Adoption Project was a program initiated in the 1950s and 1960s aimed at placing Native American children into non-Native American homes through adoption. This project emerged from broader policies that sought to assimilate Indigenous peoples into mainstream American society, reflecting systemic beliefs that Indigenous families were unable to provide adequate care for their children. The project highlights the intersection of forced adoption and child removal policies that targeted Indigenous communities, often resulting in the disruption of cultural ties and familial connections.
Indian Child Welfare Act: The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) is a federal law enacted in 1978 aimed at preserving and protecting the integrity of Indigenous families and tribes by establishing standards for the removal of Native American children from their families. The ICWA was created in response to alarming rates of forced adoption and child removal policies that disproportionately affected Indigenous communities, ensuring that Indigenous children remain connected to their cultural heritage and familial ties.
Intergenerational trauma: Intergenerational trauma refers to the psychological, emotional, and social effects of trauma that are passed down from one generation to another, often impacting the descendants of individuals who experienced the initial trauma. This phenomenon is particularly significant in communities affected by historical injustices, as it shapes identities, relationships, and mental health outcomes for future generations.
Loss of culture: Loss of culture refers to the erosion or disappearance of a group's cultural identity, practices, languages, and traditions, often due to external pressures such as colonization, assimilation policies, or forced displacement. This phenomenon is particularly significant when discussing the impact of historical injustices on Indigenous populations, where systemic efforts have disrupted the transmission of cultural knowledge and practices across generations.
Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that seeks to understand human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior through non-numerical data. It focuses on exploring the underlying motivations, feelings, and experiences of individuals, often using methods like interviews, focus groups, and observations. This approach is particularly valuable when studying sensitive issues, as it allows for a deep understanding of personal stories and cultural contexts.
Residential schools: Residential schools were government-funded, church-run institutions established in North America aimed at assimilating Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. These schools sought to erase Indigenous identities by separating children from their families and communities, which had devastating impacts on cultural continuity, mental health, and social structures.
Self-determination: Self-determination is the right of individuals and groups to determine their own political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. This concept is fundamental to the empowerment of Indigenous communities, allowing them to reclaim control over their governance, resources, and cultural identity.
Sharon H. McIvor: Sharon H. McIvor is a prominent Indigenous activist and legal scholar known for her significant contributions to Indigenous rights, particularly in the area of gender equality and the legal recognition of Indigenous identity. Her advocacy focuses on addressing the impact of forced adoption and child removal policies, which have historically affected Indigenous families in Canada, highlighting the need for legal reforms to protect Indigenous identities and rights.
Sixties Scoop: The Sixties Scoop refers to a period in Canada during the 1960s and 1970s when thousands of Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and placed into non-Indigenous foster homes or adopted by non-Indigenous families. This practice was part of broader assimilation policies aimed at erasing Indigenous cultures and identities, which also included residential schools and other child removal initiatives.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state or a group to govern itself, free from external interference. In the context of Indigenous peoples, sovereignty embodies the inherent rights to self-determination, land, culture, and governance. It reflects a crucial aspect of their identity and autonomy in response to historical injustices and ongoing struggles for recognition and rights.
Stolen generations: The term 'stolen generations' refers to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in Australia who were forcibly removed from their families by the government from the late 19th century until the 1970s. This policy aimed to assimilate Indigenous children into white Australian society, leading to significant trauma and loss of cultural identity for those affected. The impact of these policies resonates deeply within contemporary discussions about reconciliation and truth-telling regarding historical injustices.
Truth and Reconciliation: Truth and reconciliation refers to processes and initiatives aimed at addressing past injustices, fostering healing, and restoring relationships between communities, especially following periods of oppression or systemic abuse. These initiatives often involve truth commissions or similar bodies that document experiences of victims and perpetrators, promote public acknowledgment of wrongs, and encourage reparative actions to build a more equitable future.