🦚Indian Philosophy Unit 9 – Buddhist Philosophy: Core Concepts & Schools

Origins and Historical Context

• Buddhism originated in ancient India during the 5th century BCE, a time of great philosophical and spiritual exploration
• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a prince who renounced his wealthy life to seek spiritual enlightenment
  • Siddhartha was born in Lumbini (present-day Nepal) and raised in Kapilavastu
  • He left his palace at the age of 29 to pursue a life of asceticism and meditation
• Gautama achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, becoming the Buddha or "Awakened One"
• The Buddha's first sermon, known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered in Sarnath and laid the foundation for Buddhist teachings
• Buddhism emerged in the context of Brahmanical Hinduism, offering an alternative path to spiritual liberation
  • Rejected the authority of the Vedas and the caste system
  • Emphasized individual effort and personal responsibility in attaining enlightenment
• Spread rapidly throughout India and beyond, particularly under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE
• Developed into various schools and traditions as it adapted to different cultural contexts (Theravada, Mahayana, Vajrayana)

Core Teachings of Buddhism

• The Four Noble Truths: the fundamental teachings of Buddhism that outline the nature of suffering and the path to liberation
• The Eightfold Path: a practical guide to ethical and mindful living that leads to the cessation of suffering
• The Three Marks of Existence: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anatta)
  • All phenomena are impermanent and subject to change
  • Attachment to impermanent things leads to suffering
  • There is no permanent, unchanging self or soul
• The doctrine of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada): all phenomena arise in dependence upon other factors and conditions
• The concept of karma: intentional actions have consequences that shape an individual's future experiences and rebirths
• The goal of Nirvana: a state of perfect peace, freedom from suffering, and liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara)
• The importance of compassion (karuna) and loving-kindness (metta) towards all sentient beings

The Four Noble Truths

• The truth of suffering (dukkha): life is inherently unsatisfactory and marked by suffering
  • Birth, aging, sickness, death, separation from the pleasant, contact with the unpleasant, and not getting what one desires all cause suffering
• The truth of the cause of suffering (samudaya): suffering arises from craving, attachment, and ignorance
  • Craving for sensual pleasures, existence, and non-existence
  • Attachment to the five aggregates (form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness)
• The truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha): suffering can be overcome by eliminating craving and attachment
  • Nirvana is the ultimate state of liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth
• The truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering (magga): the Eightfold Path provides a practical guide to achieving liberation
• The Four Noble Truths serve as a diagnostic framework for understanding the human condition and a prescription for attaining spiritual freedom

The Eightfold Path

• Right View: understanding the Four Noble Truths and the nature of reality
• Right Intention: cultivating thoughts and motivations free from greed, hatred, and delusion
• Right Speech: speaking truthfully, kindly, and constructively, avoiding lies, gossip, and harsh words
• Right Action: acting ethically, abstaining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct
• Right Livelihood: earning a living in a way that does not harm oneself or others, avoiding professions that involve exploitation or deception
• Right Effort: cultivating wholesome mental states and abandoning unwholesome ones
  • The four right efforts: preventing the arising of unwholesome states, abandoning unwholesome states that have arisen, cultivating wholesome states, and maintaining wholesome states that have arisen
• Right Mindfulness: being fully aware and attentive to the present moment, observing physical sensations, feelings, thoughts, and mental states without judgment
  • The four foundations of mindfulness: mindfulness of the body, feelings, mind, and mental objects
• Right Concentration: developing single-pointed focus and mental clarity through meditation
  • The four jhanas: progressive stages of meditative absorption characterized by increasing levels of equanimity and detachment

Major Schools of Buddhist Thought

• Theravada Buddhism: the oldest surviving branch of Buddhism, prevalent in Southeast Asian countries (Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos)
  • Emphasizes the importance of individual effort in attaining enlightenment
  • Focuses on the original teachings of the Buddha as preserved in the Pali Canon
  • Stresses the role of monastic life and the attainment of Arhatship
• Mahayana Buddhism: a later development that spread to East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam) and emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal
  • Teaches that all beings have Buddha-nature and can attain Buddhahood
  • Introduces the concept of skillful means (upaya) to help others on the path to enlightenment
  • Develops the doctrine of emptiness (shunyata) and the two truths (conventional and ultimate)
• Vajrayana Buddhism: an esoteric branch that developed in India and spread to Tibet, Mongolia, and other Himalayan regions
  • Incorporates tantric practices, mantras, and visualizations to accelerate the path to enlightenment
  • Emphasizes the role of the guru and the transmission of teachings through lineages
  • Introduces the concept of the three bodies (trikaya) of the Buddha: the Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya
• While these schools differ in their interpretations and practices, they all share the core teachings of the Buddha and the goal of attaining liberation from suffering

Key Buddhist Concepts

• The Five Aggregates (skandhas): the components that make up an individual's experience of reality (form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness)
• The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination: a detailed explanation of how ignorance gives rise to suffering and the cycle of rebirth
• The Three Jewels (triratna): the Buddha, the Dharma (teachings), and the Sangha (community of practitioners) as the sources of refuge and guidance
• The Six Realms of Existence: the various states of rebirth in the cycle of samsara (gods, demi-gods, humans, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings)
• The doctrine of no-self (anatta): the idea that there is no permanent, unchanging self or soul, but rather a constantly changing stream of physical and mental phenomena
• The concept of the Middle Way: avoiding extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification in the pursuit of spiritual growth
• The three poisons: greed, hatred, and delusion as the root causes of suffering and the obstacles to enlightenment
• The three characteristics of existence: impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anatta) as the fundamental truths of reality

Buddhist Ethics and Practices

• The Five Precepts: the basic ethical guidelines for lay Buddhists (abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxicants)
• The practice of generosity (dana): giving material goods, time, energy, and wisdom to others without attachment or expectation of reward
• The cultivation of loving-kindness (metta) and compassion (karuna) towards all sentient beings
• The practice of mindfulness (sati): being fully present and aware of one's thoughts, feelings, and actions in the present moment
• Meditation practices: various techniques for developing concentration, insight, and wisdom (samatha and vipassana)
  • Mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati)
  • Loving-kindness meditation (metta bhavana)
  • Insight meditation (vipassana)
• The role of monasticism: the Sangha as a community of ordained practitioners who dedicate their lives to the study, practice, and preservation of the Buddha's teachings
• The practice of going for refuge: taking the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha as one's ultimate sources of guidance and protection
• The observance of Buddhist festivals and rituals: Vesak (celebrating the Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and death), Uposatha (observing the full and new moon days), and various cultural-specific practices

Buddhism's Influence and Modern Relevance

• Buddhism's impact on art, literature, and architecture in Asia (stupas, temples, Buddhist art and iconography)
• The influence of Buddhist philosophy on Western thought, particularly in the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science
• The role of Buddhism in promoting peace, nonviolence, and social harmony (the Dalai Lama, Thich Nhat Hanh, and other Buddhist leaders)
• The application of Buddhist mindfulness practices in mental health, stress reduction, and personal well-being (Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy)
• The engagement of Buddhism with contemporary issues such as environmentalism, social justice, and gender equality (Engaged Buddhism, Buddhist feminism)
• The growth of Buddhist communities and centers in the West, adapting the teachings to modern contexts and needs
• The ongoing dialogue between Buddhism and science, exploring the nature of the mind, consciousness, and reality (Mind and Life Institute, Buddhist-inspired research in psychology and neuroscience)
• The relevance of Buddhist teachings on impermanence, interdependence, and compassion in addressing global challenges such as climate change, inequality, and conflict