🦚Indian Philosophy Unit 12 – Indian Philosophy vs Western Thought

Key Concepts in Indian Philosophy

• Dharma encompasses religious duty, moral rights and duties, and the eternal order of the cosmos
• Karma is the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions influence future outcomes
• Samsara refers to the cycle of death and rebirth to which life in the material world is bound
• Moksha is the liberation from samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth, and all the suffering involved
• Atman is the concept of the eternal, unchanging self or soul that is distinct from the mind and body
• Brahman represents the ultimate reality underlying all phenomena, the divine ground of being
• Yoga includes a variety of disciplines, practices and methods that aim to control the mind and achieve moksha
  • Bhakti yoga focuses on devotion and love for a personal god or goddess
  • Jnana yoga emphasizes wisdom, discernment, and intellectual discipline to realize one's true nature

Origins and Historical Context

• Indian philosophy has ancient roots, with the earliest Vedic texts dating back to around 1500 BCE
• The Vedas are the oldest scriptures of Hinduism and include hymns, incantations, and philosophical discussions
• Upanishads are philosophical texts that form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion, emerging around 800-400 BCE
• The "Hindu synthesis" emerged during the early Classical period (ca. 200 BCE-300 CE) with the development of various philosophical schools
• Buddhism and Jainism arose in the 6th century BCE, offering alternatives to the Vedic tradition
• The medieval period (ca. 300-1200 CE) saw the development of the major philosophical schools and their extensive debates
• Islamic rule in India (ca. 1200-1750 CE) introduced new philosophical perspectives and challenges
• The modern period, beginning with British colonialism, led to a re-evaluation and revival of traditional Indian thought

Major Schools of Indian Thought

• The Six Orthodox (Astika) Schools accept the authority of the Vedas
  • Samkhya is a dualist school that posits two ultimate realities: purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter)
  • Yoga outlines a practical path to achieving moksha through meditation, discipline, and self-control
  • Nyaya is a realist school that developed a sophisticated system of logic and epistemology
  • Vaisheshika is an atomist school that proposes a pluralistic ontology of atoms, qualities, and souls
  • Mimamsa focuses on Vedic exegesis and the nature of dharma
  • Vedanta is a monistic school that identifies Atman with Brahman, the ultimate reality
• The Three Unorthodox (Nastika) Schools reject the authority of the Vedas
  • Carvaka is a materialist and skeptical school that denies the existence of the soul and afterlife
  • Buddhism teaches the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to achieve nirvana and end suffering
  • Jainism emphasizes non-violence, non-attachment, and a path of purification to achieve liberation

Western Philosophical Traditions

• Ancient Greek philosophy laid the foundations for Western thought, with key figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
• Medieval philosophy was heavily influenced by Christian theology and Islamic thought, with thinkers like Augustine and Aquinas
• Renaissance humanism and the Scientific Revolution marked a shift towards reason, empiricism, and individualism
• Enlightenment thinkers like Descartes, Hume, and Kant explored questions of knowledge, reality, and ethics
• 19th-century philosophy saw the rise of idealism (Hegel), materialism (Marx), and existentialism (Kierkegaard, Nietzsche)
• 20th-century philosophy branched into various schools, including analytic philosophy, phenomenology, and postmodernism
• Contemporary Western philosophy is characterized by a pluralism of approaches and a focus on specific problems and issues
• Key themes in Western philosophy include the nature of reality, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language

Comparing Indian and Western Approaches

• Indian philosophy tends to be more spiritual and inward-looking, while Western philosophy is more secular and outward-looking
• Indian thought emphasizes the unity of all things (monism), while Western thought often stresses dualism or pluralism
• Indian philosophy sees the self (Atman) as eternal and divine, while Western philosophy generally views the self as individual and mortal
• Indian epistemology relies heavily on meditation and intuition, while Western epistemology emphasizes reason and empirical observation
• Indian ethics is grounded in the concepts of dharma and karma, while Western ethics is based on principles like utility, duty, or virtue
• Indian philosophy aims at moksha (liberation), while Western philosophy seeks knowledge, understanding, and the good life
• Indian philosophy is more integrated with religion and spirituality, while Western philosophy has become largely secular
• Indian thought has a strong tradition of oral transmission and guru-disciple relationships, while Western philosophy relies on written texts and individual thinkers

Metaphysical and Epistemological Differences

• Indian metaphysics often posits a single ultimate reality (Brahman), while Western metaphysics has diverse views on the nature of reality
• Indian thought sees the world as an illusion (maya) or a manifestation of Brahman, while Western thought generally accepts the reality of the external world
• Indian epistemology recognizes various means of knowledge (pramanas), including perception, inference, testimony, and meditation
• Western epistemology has traditionally focused on reason and empirical observation as the main sources of knowledge
• Indian philosophy emphasizes the role of the mind and consciousness in shaping reality, while Western philosophy has tended to see the mind as separate from the external world
• Indian thought often aims at overcoming the limitations of the intellect through spiritual realization, while Western thought relies heavily on rational analysis and argumentation
• Indian epistemology sees knowledge as a means to liberation (moksha), while Western epistemology often pursues knowledge for its own sake or for practical applications

Ethics and Social Philosophy

• Indian ethics is grounded in the concepts of dharma (duty, righteousness) and karma (moral causation)
• Western ethics has developed various approaches, such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics
• Indian social philosophy emphasizes the duties and obligations of individuals within a hierarchical social structure (varna-ashrama dharma)
• Western social philosophy has focused on individual rights, social contracts, and principles of justice and equality
• Indian thought sees the individual as part of a larger cosmic order, while Western thought emphasizes individual autonomy and free will
• Indian philosophy has a strong tradition of renunciation and asceticism, while Western philosophy has generally affirmed the value of worldly life and engagement
• Indian ethics aims at the realization of moksha, while Western ethics seeks to promote happiness, well-being, and social harmony
• Indian social thought has been influenced by the concept of ahimsa (non-violence), as in the philosophies of Buddhism, Jainism, and Gandhi

Modern Relevance and Global Impact

• Indian philosophical concepts like karma, yoga, and meditation have gained widespread popularity in the West
• The influence of Indian thought can be seen in the works of Western thinkers like Schopenhauer, Emerson, and Huxley
• Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Aurobindo drew on traditional Indian philosophy in their political and social thought
• The study of Indian philosophy has contributed to the development of comparative philosophy and cross-cultural understanding
• Indian thought has influenced the development of new fields like transpersonal psychology and contemplative studies
• The encounter between Indian and Western philosophy has led to a re-evaluation of traditional Western assumptions and a greater appreciation for non-Western perspectives
• Indian philosophy offers insights into perennial questions of human existence, consciousness, and the nature of reality
• The global impact of Indian philosophy can be seen in the spread of practices like yoga, meditation, and mindfulness, as well as in the growing interest in Eastern spirituality and holistic health