Glossary

emerged in 7th century Arabia, founded by who received revelations from Allah. The religion spread rapidly, becoming a major global faith. Its core beliefs include monotheism, the as divine scripture, and the of Islam.

The Islamic world experienced a Golden Age of scientific and cultural advancement. It also saw political expansion under various caliphates. The faith split into Sunni and Shia branches, and developed mystical traditions like . Today, Islam faces modern challenges while remaining a diverse, influential global religion.

Origins of Islam

  • Islam is a monotheistic religion that emerged in the 7th century in the Arabian Peninsula
  • Founded by the prophet Muhammad, who received revelations from Allah (God) that formed the basis of the Quran, the holy book of Islam
  • Islam quickly spread throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe and Asia, becoming one of the world's major religions

Muhammad's early life

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  • Born in Mecca around 570 CE to a prominent merchant family of the Quraysh tribe
  • Orphaned at a young age and raised by his uncle Abu Talib
  • Worked as a merchant and became known for his honesty and trustworthiness
  • Married Khadija, a wealthy widow, at the age of 25

Revelations from Allah

  • At the age of 40, Muhammad began receiving revelations from Allah through the angel Gabriel while meditating in a cave near Mecca
  • These revelations, which continued for 23 years until Muhammad's death, formed the basis of the Quran
  • Muhammad began preaching the message of Islam, emphasizing the oneness of God, the importance of moral and ethical behavior, and the inevitability of the Day of Judgment

Core beliefs

  • Islam is based on the belief in one God (Allah) and the acceptance of Muhammad as his final prophet
  • The Quran is the central religious text of Islam, believed to be the direct word of God as revealed to Muhammad
  • Muslims also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad, known as the Sunnah, which are recorded in the Hadith

Five Pillars of Islam

  • : the declaration of faith, affirming that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger
  • : the requirement to pray five times a day facing towards Mecca
  • : the obligation to give a portion of one's wealth to charity
  • : fasting during the month of Ramadan, from dawn to sunset
  • : the pilgrimage to Mecca that every able-bodied Muslim must perform at least once in their lifetime

Concept of jihad

  • literally means "struggle" or "effort" in Arabic
  • Often misunderstood as solely referring to holy war, but in Islamic theology, it encompasses both the inner spiritual struggle to become a better Muslim and the outer struggle to defend and spread Islam
  • Greater jihad refers to the personal struggle against sin and temptation, while lesser jihad refers to armed struggle against oppression or in defense of Islam

Differences vs Christianity and Judaism

  • Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are all Abrahamic religions that trace their origins to the prophet Abraham
  • Muslims believe in many of the same prophets as Christians and Jews, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but view Muhammad as the final prophet
  • Islam rejects the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus, instead emphasizing the absolute oneness of God
  • Unlike Judaism, Islam is not tied to a particular ethnic group or lineage, and anyone can convert to Islam regardless of their background

Expansion of Islam

  • After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, Islam began to spread rapidly through military conquests, trade, and missionary activity
  • The early Muslim community was led by a series of caliphs, who were both political and religious leaders

Conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate

  • The (632-661 CE) was the first Islamic state, ruled by the four "rightly guided" caliphs who were close companions of Muhammad
  • Under their leadership, the Muslim armies conquered much of the Middle East, including the Byzantine and Sassanid empires
  • By the end of the Rashidun period, the Islamic empire stretched from North Africa to the borders of India

Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates

  • The (661-750 CE) was the second Islamic dynasty, based in Damascus
  • Under the Umayyads, the Islamic empire expanded even further, reaching the Iberian Peninsula in the west and Central Asia in the east
  • The (750-1258 CE) was the third Islamic dynasty, based in Baghdad
  • The Abbasids oversaw a period of great cultural and intellectual flourishing known as the

Spread to Africa and Asia

  • Islam spread to North Africa through the Umayyad conquests in the 7th and 8th centuries
  • From there, it spread to West Africa through trade routes and the activities of Muslim merchants and scholars
  • Islam also spread to Southeast Asia through trade, particularly in the Malay Archipelago (Indonesia, Malaysia)
  • In the Indian subcontinent, Islam was introduced by Arab traders and later consolidated under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire

Islamic Golden Age

  • The Islamic Golden Age (8th-14th centuries) was a period of great cultural, economic, and scientific advancement in the Islamic world
  • Centered in Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid , but also flourished in other cities such as Cairo, Cordoba, and Samarkand
  • Characterized by a spirit of inquiry, tolerance, and the patronage of learning by rulers and elites

Advances in science and mathematics

  • Muslim scholars made significant contributions to mathematics, including the development of algebra and advances in geometry and trigonometry
  • In astronomy, Muslims built observatories, improved the design of astrolabes, and made accurate calculations of the Earth's circumference
  • Muslim physicians developed new medical treatments, wrote extensive medical encyclopedias, and established hospitals and medical schools

Preservation of classical knowledge

  • Muslim scholars translated and preserved many works of classical Greek and Roman philosophy, science, and literature
  • The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was a major center of translation and scholarship
  • Muslim scholars also engaged with and built upon the ideas of classical thinkers, particularly in philosophy and logic

Art and architecture

  • The Islamic Golden Age saw the development of distinctive styles of art and architecture, characterized by intricate geometric patterns, calligraphy, and the use of colorful tiles and mosaics
  • Notable examples include the Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, the Alhambra palace in Spain, and the Taj Mahal in India
  • Islamic art also flourished in the form of textiles, ceramics, metalwork, and manuscript illumination

Sunni vs Shia split

  • The Sunni-Shia split is the major sectarian division within Islam, originating from a dispute over the succession to Muhammad

Dispute over succession

  • After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, there was disagreement over who should lead the Muslim community
  • Some believed that leadership should pass to Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close companion and father-in-law, while others supported Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law
  • Abu Bakr became the first caliph, followed by Umar, Uthman, and finally Ali
  • The supporters of Ali became known as the Shia, while those who accepted the authority of the first three caliphs became known as the Sunni

Key differences in beliefs and practices

  • Sunni Muslims make up the majority (85-90%) of Muslims worldwide, while Shia Muslims are a minority concentrated in Iran, Iraq, and parts of the Gulf region
  • Sunni Muslims emphasize the importance of following the Sunnah (example) of Muhammad and the consensus of the Muslim community, while Shia Muslims believe in the infallibility and divine right to rule of the Imams, descendants of Ali
  • Shia Muslims also place greater emphasis on the commemoration of the martyrdom of Ali's son Husayn in the Battle of Karbala, and have some distinct religious practices and festivals
  • Despite these differences, Sunni and Shia Muslims share the same core beliefs and practices, and there is significant diversity within each tradition

Islam and politics

  • Islam has a long history of political engagement, with religious leaders often holding political power or influencing state policies
  • The relationship between religion and state has varied across different Muslim societies and historical periods

Role of the caliphate

  • The caliphate was the political-religious leadership of the Muslim community, combining spiritual authority with temporal power
  • The caliph was seen as the successor to Muhammad and the leader of the Muslim community, responsible for implementing Islamic law and defending the Muslim lands
  • The institution of the caliphate declined in power and influence over time, particularly after the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258, and was finally abolished by the Turkish Republic in 1924

Relationship between religion and state

  • The relationship between religion and state in Muslim societies has ranged from theocracy (rule by religious leaders) to secular nationalism
  • Some Muslim countries have implemented Islamic law () as the basis of their legal system, while others have adopted more secular legal codes
  • The role of Islam in politics has also been shaped by colonialism, modernization, and the rise of Islamist movements in the 20th century

Sharia law

  • Sharia is the Islamic legal system, derived from the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad
  • It covers both religious and secular aspects of life, including worship, marriage, inheritance, and criminal law
  • The interpretation and application of sharia has varied across different Muslim societies and schools of Islamic jurisprudence
  • In some Muslim countries, sharia courts operate alongside or within the state legal system, while in others, sharia is not formally codified in law

Interactions with other civilizations

  • Throughout its history, the Islamic world has had complex and varied interactions with other civilizations, including periods of conflict, trade, and cultural exchange

Crusades and conflict with Europe

  • The (11th-13th centuries) were a series of military campaigns by European Christians to recapture the Holy Land from Muslim rule
  • The Crusades had a complex impact on relations between the Islamic world and Europe, with periods of conflict and violence as well as cultural exchange and trade
  • The Crusades also had a lasting impact on European culture and identity, as well as on the political and economic development of the Middle East

Trade and cultural exchange

  • The Islamic world was a major center of trade and commerce, with extensive networks connecting Europe, Africa, and Asia
  • Muslim merchants and travelers played a key role in the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies across the Afro-Eurasian world
  • The Islamic world also had a significant cultural influence on neighboring civilizations, particularly in the fields of science, philosophy, and the arts

Influence on African kingdoms

  • Islam spread to Africa through trade routes and the activities of Muslim merchants and scholars, particularly in West Africa
  • Muslim states and empires emerged in West Africa, such as the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire, which combined Islamic and local African traditions
  • Islam also had a significant influence on the culture and politics of East African city-states and kingdoms, such as Kilwa and Mogadishu

Sufism and mysticism

  • Sufism is the mystical tradition within Islam, emphasizing the inner spiritual journey and the direct experience of God
  • Sufism developed in the early centuries of Islam and spread throughout the Muslim world, taking on diverse forms and practices

Emphasis on spirituality

  • Sufis seek to cultivate a personal relationship with God through practices such as meditation, chanting, and ecstatic dance
  • Sufism emphasizes the importance of love, devotion, and the purification of the heart as means of drawing closer to God
  • Sufi teachings often use poetry, music, and metaphor to express spiritual truths and experiences

Influence on literature and poetry

  • Sufism has had a profound influence on Islamic literature and poetry, particularly in the Persian, Turkish, and Urdu languages
  • Sufi poets such as Rumi, Hafez, and Ibn Arabi are widely celebrated for their mystical verses and their expressions of divine love and longing
  • Sufi literature also includes prose works such as biographies of saints and treatises on spiritual practice and philosophy

Women in Islam

  • The status and rights of women in Islam have been a subject of debate and variation across different Muslim societies and historical periods

Rights and roles

  • The Quran affirms the spiritual equality of men and women and grants women rights such as the right to own property, to inherit, and to consent to marriage
  • However, the interpretation and application of these rights have varied across different Muslim societies, often influenced by local cultural norms and patriarchal structures
  • Women have played important roles in Islamic history as scholars, mystics, and political leaders, but their participation in public life has often been limited by social and legal restrictions

Variations across cultures

  • The status and experiences of Muslim women have varied widely across different cultures and regions
  • In some Muslim societies, women have enjoyed relatively high levels of education, employment, and political participation, while in others, they have faced significant discrimination and marginalization
  • The rise of feminist movements in the Muslim world in the 20th and 21st centuries has challenged traditional gender norms and advocated for greater rights and opportunities for women within an Islamic framework

Modern challenges

  • The Islamic world has faced a range of challenges and transformations in the modern era, shaped by factors such as colonialism, nationalism, and globalization

Impact of colonialism and Western influence

  • Many Muslim societies experienced European colonialism in the 19th and 20th centuries, which had a profound impact on their political, economic, and cultural development
  • Colonial rule often disrupted traditional social and religious institutions, and introduced new ideas and values from the West
  • The legacy of colonialism has continued to shape the Islamic world in the post-colonial era, including through ongoing political and economic ties with Western powers

Rise of Islamist movements

  • Islamist movements, which seek to establish Islamic states and implement Islamic law, have emerged in many Muslim societies in the 20th and 21st centuries
  • These movements have often been a response to the challenges of colonialism, modernization, and secularization, and have taken diverse forms, from political parties to militant groups
  • Islamist movements have had a significant impact on the politics and society of many Muslim countries, and have often been in conflict with secular and liberal forces

Islam in the contemporary world

  • The Islamic world today is characterized by great diversity, with Muslim communities spanning a wide range of cultures, languages, and political systems
  • Muslims are grappling with a range of challenges and opportunities, from economic development and social justice to the impact of globalization and new technologies
  • The relationship between Islam and modernity remains a subject of ongoing debate and negotiation, with different visions of how to reconcile Islamic values with the demands of the contemporary world
  • The Islamic world is also increasingly interconnected with the wider global community, through trade, migration, and cultural exchange, creating new opportunities for dialogue and cooperation across religious and cultural boundaries

Key Terms to Review (21)

Abbasid Caliphate: The Abbasid Caliphate was the third Islamic caliphate, founded in 750 CE, that succeeded the Umayyad Caliphate and lasted until the Mongol invasion in 1258 CE. It is significant for its establishment of a golden age of Islamic culture, where advancements in science, philosophy, and the arts flourished, and for its role in unifying the Muslim world under a more inclusive and culturally diverse regime.
Abrahamic Faiths: Abrahamic faiths refer to the three major monotheistic religions that trace their origins to the patriarch Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These faiths share a belief in one God and have a significant number of common teachings, moral values, and historical narratives, while also holding distinct beliefs and practices that set them apart from one another.
Caliphate: A caliphate is a form of Islamic government led by a caliph, who is considered the political and religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The caliphate serves as a unifying authority for the Muslim community, governing according to Islamic law (Sharia) and promoting the spread of Islam. Historically, it has played a crucial role in shaping Islamic civilization and its political structure.
Crusades: The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period, primarily aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and other holy sites from Muslim control. These conflicts involved various European powers and knights, leading to significant cultural, political, and economic changes across both Europe and the Middle East. The Crusades also marked a pivotal moment in Christian-Muslim relations and shaped the future of both regions.
Five Pillars: The Five Pillars of Islam are the fundamental acts of worship and practice that form the foundation of a Muslim's faith and actions. These pillars guide the spiritual and moral conduct of Muslims, establishing their connection to God and the community. The Five Pillars include the declaration of faith, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage, each playing a crucial role in shaping Islamic identity and community life.
Hajj: Hajj is the annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, which is considered one of the Five Pillars of Islam. This religious journey takes place during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah and is a mandatory act for all Muslims who are physically and financially able to undertake it at least once in their lifetime. The hajj serves not only as a demonstration of the Muslim's faith but also as a means of fostering unity among Muslims worldwide.
Islam: Islam is a major world religion founded in the 7th century CE by the Prophet Muhammad, based on the belief in one God (Allah) and the teachings found in the Quran. It emphasizes submission to the will of Allah, with core practices known as the Five Pillars of Islam, which include faith, prayer, almsgiving, fasting during Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca. As it spread rapidly beyond the Arabian Peninsula, Islam played a significant role in shaping various cultures, societies, and economies across regions such as Africa.
Islamic Golden Age: The Islamic Golden Age refers to a period of remarkable cultural, economic, and scientific flourishing in the Islamic world, primarily from the 8th to the 14th century. This era saw significant advancements in various fields such as mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and philosophy, and it played a crucial role in preserving and enhancing the knowledge of ancient civilizations while fostering an environment of intellectual exchange across cultures.
Jihad: Jihad is an Arabic term meaning 'struggle' or 'striving,' and it has both a personal and communal dimension in Islam. It encompasses the spiritual struggle against sin for self-improvement as well as the collective effort to defend and spread Islam, which can include military action. This dual nature has led to various interpretations and applications throughout history, influencing religious, political, and social contexts.
Muhammad: Muhammad is the founder of Islam and is considered the last prophet in a long line of prophets in Abrahamic religions. Born in Mecca around 570 CE, he received revelations from Allah through the angel Gabriel, which were later compiled into the Quran. His teachings established the foundations of Islamic belief and practice, influencing millions of followers and shaping the course of history in the Arabian Peninsula and beyond.
Quran: The Quran is the holy scripture of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. It serves as the primary source of guidance for Muslims, encompassing teachings on faith, morality, and law, and is recited and memorized by millions around the world.
Rashidun Caliphate: The Rashidun Caliphate refers to the first four caliphs of Islam who ruled from 632 to 661 CE, following the death of the Prophet Muhammad. This period is marked by rapid territorial expansion, significant administrative developments, and the consolidation of Islamic teachings and practices. The caliphs during this time—Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali—are often regarded as the 'Rightly Guided' due to their adherence to Muhammad's principles and governance based on consultation.
Salah: Salah is the Islamic practice of ritual prayer, performed five times a day by Muslims as a fundamental act of worship. It represents a direct link between the worshipper and Allah, emphasizing submission and devotion. This practice not only serves as a spiritual obligation but also functions as a communal activity that fosters unity among believers.
Sawm: Sawm is the Islamic practice of fasting during the month of Ramadan, where Muslims abstain from food, drink, smoking, and sexual relations from dawn until sunset. This sacred observance is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and serves to cultivate spiritual growth, self-discipline, and empathy for the less fortunate.
Shahada: The Shahada is the Islamic declaration of faith, affirming the oneness of God and the prophethood of Muhammad. This fundamental statement, 'There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger,' is the first of the Five Pillars of Islam, signifying a Muslim's entry into the faith and commitment to its principles. The Shahada serves not only as a personal affirmation but also as a communal bond that unites Muslims worldwide in their belief system.
Sharia: Sharia is a system of Islamic law derived from the Quran and the Hadith, which serves as a guide for personal conduct, moral standards, and legal principles for Muslims. It encompasses various aspects of life, including rituals, ethics, family law, and social justice, providing a framework for how Muslims should live and interact with others.
Silk Road: The Silk Road was an ancient network of trade routes that connected the East and West, facilitating not just the exchange of goods like silk, spices, and precious metals, but also the sharing of culture, ideas, and technology. This extensive route significantly influenced various civilizations and economies across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, intertwining their fates through commerce and cultural exchange.
Sufism: Sufism is a mystical branch of Islam that emphasizes the inward search for God and the cultivation of personal spirituality. Sufis seek a direct personal experience of the divine through practices such as meditation, chanting, and poetry, often embodying a more emotional and spiritual approach to worship compared to traditional Islamic practices. This pursuit of deeper spiritual understanding and connection has influenced various aspects of Islamic culture and thought throughout history.
Trans-Saharan Trade: Trans-Saharan trade refers to the exchange of goods, people, and ideas across the Sahara Desert between North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, predominantly from the 8th to the 16th centuries. This trade network facilitated the movement of valuable commodities such as gold, salt, and slaves, connecting different cultures and economies while significantly influencing the spread of Islam and the development of powerful empires in medieval Africa.
Umayyad Caliphate: The Umayyad Caliphate was the first major Islamic caliphate established after the death of Muhammad, ruling from 661 to 750 CE. It expanded rapidly, stretching from Spain in the west to India in the east, and is known for significant cultural, political, and economic developments that shaped early Islamic civilization.
Zakat: Zakat is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, representing a form of almsgiving or charitable donation that Muslims are required to give to support the less fortunate and those in need. This practice not only serves as a religious obligation but also reinforces the social welfare aspect of Islamic teachings, promoting community well-being and financial equity.
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