11.4 Housing discrimination and segregation
10 min read•august 21, 2024
Housing discrimination and segregation have shaped American cities and perpetuated racial inequalities for generations. From to restrictive covenants, discriminatory practices have created lasting disparities in homeownership, wealth, and opportunity across racial lines.
This topic examines the historical roots and modern manifestations of housing discrimination. It explores legal challenges, consequences for communities of color, and grassroots movements fighting for fair housing. Understanding this history is crucial for addressing ongoing inequities and envisioning more inclusive housing policies.
Origins of housing discrimination
- Housing discrimination in the United States stems from a long history of and segregation
- Ethnic studies examines how discriminatory housing practices have shaped urban landscapes and perpetuated racial inequalities
- Understanding the origins of housing discrimination provides crucial context for analyzing modern racial and economic disparities
Redlining and restrictive covenants
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- Redlining involved color-coded maps used by banks to deny mortgages in minority neighborhoods
- Federal Housing Administration (FHA) endorsed redlining practices in the 1930s, deeming minority areas "high risk"
- Restrictive covenants prohibited property sales to non-white buyers, enforced by homeowners' associations and real estate boards
- These practices led to concentrated poverty and disinvestment in minority communities
- Effects of redlining persist today through generational wealth gaps and continued neighborhood segregation
Impact of federal policies
- New Deal housing programs disproportionately benefited white Americans, excluding many minorities from homeownership opportunities
- GI Bill after World War II provided low-interest mortgages primarily to white veterans, accelerating suburban growth
- Federal Highway Act of 1956 often routed interstates through minority neighborhoods, displacing residents and fragmenting communities
- Urban renewal projects in the 1950s-60s demolished minority neighborhoods under the guise of "slum clearance"
- These policies collectively reinforced racial segregation and limited economic mobility for minority groups
Role of real estate industry
- Real estate agents practiced "steering," guiding white homebuyers away from minority neighborhoods
- Multiple Listing Services (MLS) excluded minority realtors, limiting access to property listings for non-white buyers
- tactics exploited racial fears to prompt white flight and neighborhood turnover
- Appraisal industry systematically undervalued properties in minority areas, perpetuating cycles of disinvestment
- Real estate boards promoted racially restrictive zoning ordinances to maintain segregation
Forms of housing segregation
- Housing segregation manifests in various forms, reflecting complex intersections of race, class, and geography
- Ethnic studies analyzes how different types of segregation reinforce social inequalities and limit opportunities for marginalized groups
- Understanding these patterns is crucial for developing effective policies to promote integration and equitable housing access
Racial segregation patterns
- describes extreme racial isolation in urban areas, particularly affecting Black Americans
- measures the evenness of racial distribution across neighborhoods (0 = complete integration, 100 = complete segregation)
- suggests white flight accelerates when minority presence reaches a certain threshold (typically 20-30%)
- form due to a combination of discriminatory practices and in-group preferences
- Segregation often correlates with disparities in public services, infrastructure, and economic opportunities
Economic segregation factors
- has increased since the 1970s, with growing concentration of poverty and affluence
- practices (minimum lot sizes, restrictions on multi-family housing) maintain economic homogeneity
- Property tax-based school funding creates incentives for income sorting across school districts
- can lead to economic displacement of long-time residents in historically low-income areas
- Concentrated poverty areas (>40% poverty rate) face compounded challenges in access to jobs, education, and services
Urban vs suburban divides
- White flight to suburbs in mid-20th century reshaped metropolitan demographics
- Inner-ring suburbs now experiencing demographic shifts and increasing diversity
- Spatial mismatch between job opportunities in suburbs and urban minority populations
- Differences in public transportation access exacerbate urban-suburban divides
- has grown rapidly since 2000, challenging traditional urban-suburban dichotomies
Legal challenges and legislation
- Legal efforts to combat housing discrimination represent a key focus in ethnic studies research
- Understanding the evolution of fair housing laws provides insight into both progress and persistent challenges in achieving
- Analysis of legal frameworks helps identify gaps in protection and areas for future policy intervention
Fair Housing Act of 1968
- Prohibited discrimination in housing sales, rentals, and financing based on race, color, religion, and national origin
- Later amendments added protections based on sex (1974), disability, and familial status (1988)
- Established Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) as primary enforcement agency
- Required federal government to "affirmatively further" fair housing in its programs and activities
- Faced challenges in enforcement due to high burden of proof and limited resources for investigations
Civil Rights Act impact
- Title VI of the 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs
- Applied to public housing and urban renewal projects, complementing protections
- (1968) upheld constitutionality of prohibiting private housing discrimination
- Established legal precedent for challenging discriminatory practices beyond government actions
- Spurred creation of fair housing organizations and community advocacy groups
Recent court decisions
- (2015) upheld disparate impact claims under Fair Housing Act
- (2017) allowed cities to sue banks for predatory lending under Fair Housing Act
- Mhany Management v. County of Nassau (2016) found intentional discrimination in zoning practices
- Recent cases have addressed issues of algorithmic bias in tenant screening and mortgage approvals
- Ongoing debates over use of criminal background checks in housing decisions and their disparate racial impact
Consequences of housing discrimination
- Housing discrimination produces far-reaching effects across multiple aspects of life, a central concern in ethnic studies
- Analyzing these consequences reveals how housing inequities perpetuate broader social and economic disparities
- Understanding these impacts is crucial for developing comprehensive approaches to address systemic racism and inequality
Wealth gap and homeownership
- Homeownership serves as primary wealth-building tool for many families
- Racial homeownership gap persists (72% white vs. 42% Black homeownership rate as of 2020)
- Differences in home values and appreciation rates contribute to widening wealth disparities
- Intergenerational wealth transfer through property inheritance compounds over time
- Limited access to mortgage credit in minority communities hinders wealth accumulation
Educational disparities
- School quality often correlates with neighborhood socioeconomic status
- Residential segregation leads to concentration of low-income students in underfunded schools
- Achievement gaps persist between students in high-poverty vs. low-poverty schools
- Housing instability and frequent moves negatively impact student academic performance
- Access to high-performing schools influences property values, creating feedback loop of advantage
Health and environmental impacts
- Segregated neighborhoods often face higher exposure to environmental hazards (air pollution, lead contamination)
- Food deserts in low-income areas limit access to healthy food options
- Stress from housing insecurity and poor living conditions affects physical and mental health
- Disparities in green space access influence opportunities for physical activity and recreation
- Concentrated poverty areas often lack adequate healthcare facilities and services
Modern manifestations
- Housing discrimination persists in new forms, adapting to changing legal and social landscapes
- Ethnic studies examines how contemporary practices perpetuate historical patterns of segregation and inequality
- Identifying modern manifestations is crucial for developing effective policy responses and advocacy strategies
Predatory lending practices
- Subprime mortgages disproportionately targeted minority borrowers during housing boom
- Reverse redlining involves marketing high-cost loans to specific racial or ethnic groups
- Yield spread premiums incentivized brokers to steer borrowers toward costlier loans
- Foreclosure crisis following 2008 housing crash had outsized impact on minority communities
- Recent settlements with major banks over discriminatory lending practices (Wells Fargo, Bank of America)
Gentrification and displacement
- Rapid neighborhood change often leads to cultural displacement of long-time residents
- Rising property values and taxes can force out low-income renters and homeowners
- "Green gentrification" occurs when environmental improvements increase property values
- Debates over historic preservation vs. in gentrifying areas
- and inclusionary zoning policies attempt to mitigate displacement
Digital redlining
- Algorithmic bias in online housing advertisements can perpetuate segregation
- Targeted marketing of financial products based on online behavior may exclude certain groups
- Differential pricing in e-commerce can affect access to goods and services in minority areas
- Uneven broadband internet access limits opportunities in education and employment
- Use of AI in tenant screening and mortgage approvals raises concerns about embedded biases
Intersectionality in housing issues
- framework examines how multiple forms of discrimination interact in housing contexts
- Ethnic studies emphasizes the importance of considering overlapping identities and experiences
- Understanding intersectional dynamics helps develop more nuanced and effective policy solutions
Race and socioeconomic status
- Racial wealth gap influences housing options and neighborhood choice
- Concentrated poverty areas disproportionately affect racial minorities
- Middle-class minorities often face challenges in maintaining integrated neighborhoods
- Intersection of race and class affects experiences of gentrification and displacement
- Economic mobility programs must address both racial and economic barriers
Gender and family structure
- Single mothers face unique challenges in housing access and affordability
- Domestic violence survivors often struggle with housing instability and discrimination
- LGBTQ+ individuals experience higher rates of housing discrimination and homelessness
- Multigenerational households more common in some racial/ethnic groups, affecting housing needs
- Gender pay gap influences women's ability to afford housing, particularly in high-cost areas
Immigration status effects
- Undocumented immigrants face barriers in accessing formal housing markets and mortgages
- Language barriers can limit understanding of housing rights and lease agreements
- Mixed-status families navigate complex eligibility rules for public housing assistance
- Sanctuary cities policies affect housing security for immigrant communities
- Discrimination based on perceived immigration status remains a persistent issue
Resistance and advocacy movements
- Grassroots efforts to combat housing discrimination form a crucial part of civil rights history
- Ethnic studies analyzes how communities organize and advocate for fair housing policies
- Understanding these movements provides insights into effective strategies for social change
Community organizing efforts
- Tenant unions advocate for renters' rights and fight against unfair evictions
- Community land trusts preserve affordability in gentrifying neighborhoods
- Rent strike movements address issues of housing quality and affordability
- Mutual aid networks provide support for housing-insecure community members
- Coalition-building between racial justice and housing rights organizations
Fair housing organizations
- coordinates advocacy efforts across the country
- HUD-certified housing counseling agencies provide education and support to homebuyers
- Legal aid organizations offer free or low-cost representation in housing discrimination cases
- Fair housing testing programs use paired testers to identify discriminatory practices
- Data collection and research by fair housing groups inform policy recommendations
Policy reform initiatives
- Push for stronger enforcement of existing fair housing laws
- Campaigns to expand protected classes under Fair Housing Act (source of income, sexual orientation)
- Efforts to implement addressing historical housing discrimination
- Advocacy for inclusionary zoning policies to promote mixed-income development
- Initiatives to reform credit scoring systems and expand access to mortgage financing
Case studies and examples
- Examining specific cases provides concrete illustrations of housing discrimination's impacts and responses
- Ethnic studies uses these examples to analyze broader patterns and evaluate policy effectiveness
- offer valuable lessons for developing future fair housing strategies
Historical segregated communities
- Levittown, NY (1947-1951) exemplified racially exclusive suburban development
- Eight Mile Wall in Detroit (1941) physically separated Black and white neighborhoods
- Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis (1954-1976) illustrated failures of urban renewal
- Restrictive covenants in Los Angeles' Sugar Hill neighborhood challenged in court (1945)
- Cabrini-Green in Chicago (1942-2011) became symbol of public housing segregation and neglect
Successful integration models
- Oak Park, IL implemented proactive policies to maintain racial integration since 1960s
- Montgomery County, MD's inclusionary zoning program created mixed-income communities
- Shaker Heights, OH used pro-integrative mortgage assistance to promote stable diversity
- transformed some public housing sites into mixed-income developments
- Gautreaux program in Chicago demonstrated benefits of moving to higher-opportunity areas
Ongoing discrimination lawsuits
- Facebook settled lawsuit over discriminatory ad targeting capabilities (2019)
- Bank of America faced $335 million settlement for Countrywide's discriminatory lending (2011)
- Lawsuit against CoreLogic for racially biased tenant screening algorithms (ongoing)
- HUD charged Facebook with violating Fair Housing Act through ad targeting (2019)
- New York City sued landlords for refusing housing vouchers (ongoing)
Future of fair housing
- Anticipating future challenges and opportunities in fair housing is crucial for proactive policy development
- Ethnic studies contributes to envisioning more equitable and inclusive housing landscapes
- Exploring innovative approaches helps address persistent disparities and emerging issues
Technological solutions
- AI-powered fair housing chatbots provide 24/7 information and support
- Blockchain technology could increase transparency in property transactions and lending
- Virtual reality tools allow potential renters/buyers to view properties remotely, reducing steering
- Big data analytics help identify patterns of discrimination across large datasets
- Online platforms facilitate matched-pair testing for digital housing discrimination
Inclusive zoning policies
- Form-based codes prioritize building form over use, potentially increasing housing diversity
- Elimination of single-family zoning allows for greater density and affordability
- Transit-oriented development policies promote mixed-income housing near public transportation
- Accessory dwelling unit (ADU) legalization increases housing options in existing neighborhoods
- Mandatory inclusionary zoning requires affordable units in new developments
Reparations and equity programs
- Local initiatives (Evanston, IL) use tax revenue from cannabis sales for housing reparations
- Down payment assistance programs target first-generation homebuyers
- Community land trusts preserve long-term affordability in gentrifying areas
- Baby bonds proposals aim to address racial wealth gap through government-funded trusts
- Tenant opportunity to purchase acts give renters first right to buy their buildings
Key Terms to Review (38)
Affordable housing: Affordable housing refers to housing units that are affordable for low- and moderate-income households, typically defined as spending no more than 30% of their gross income on housing costs. This concept is crucial in addressing the challenges of housing discrimination and segregation, as it aims to provide equitable access to safe and decent living conditions for marginalized communities who often face barriers in the housing market.
Bank of America v. City of Miami: Bank of America v. City of Miami is a significant legal case that addresses the issue of housing discrimination and segregation through the lens of municipal standing to sue under the Fair Housing Act. The case arose when the City of Miami claimed that Bank of America's practices disproportionately harmed minority communities, alleging that the bank's lending policies contributed to the city’s segregation and economic decline. This case highlights the complexities surrounding discriminatory lending practices and their broader implications on urban communities.
Blockbusting: Blockbusting is a real estate practice that involves inducing homeowners to sell their properties at low prices by instilling fear of an influx of minority groups into their neighborhoods. This tactic contributes to housing discrimination and segregation by manipulating racial dynamics and exploiting white homeowners' fears, resulting in neighborhood instability and financial exploitation.
Case Studies: Case studies are in-depth analyses of specific individuals, groups, events, or phenomena, often used to illustrate broader concepts or theories. They provide detailed insights and context that help to understand complex social dynamics, allowing for a rich exploration of issues related to identity, inequality, and systemic challenges within society.
Charles Tilly: Charles Tilly was an influential American sociologist and historian known for his work on social movements, political change, and the dynamics of collective action. His theories emphasized the role of historical processes in shaping social relationships and institutions, making significant contributions to the understanding of how housing discrimination and segregation can be analyzed through a social lens.
Civil Rights Act: The Civil Rights Act is landmark legislation enacted in 1964 that aimed to end discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It serves as a crucial milestone in the fight for equality and justice, addressing various areas such as employment, education, and public accommodations. This legislation has had a profound impact on social movements and continues to resonate in discussions about equity and civil liberties.
Community land trusts: Community land trusts (CLTs) are non-profit organizations that acquire and hold land on behalf of a community, with the goal of providing affordable housing and promoting community development. By separating the ownership of land from the ownership of buildings, CLTs help ensure long-term affordability and prevent displacement caused by rising property values. This model supports the creation of sustainable, equitable communities, particularly in areas affected by housing discrimination and segregation.
Critical Race Theory: Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an intellectual movement and a framework for examining the relationship between race, racism, and power. It asserts that racism is not just an individual prejudice but a systemic issue embedded in laws, policies, and social structures that perpetuate inequality and oppression. This perspective helps illuminate how race and ethnicity shape people's experiences and is essential in understanding historical and contemporary issues of social justice.
Derek Hyra: Derek Hyra is a prominent scholar known for his research on housing discrimination, urban policy, and the intersection of race and real estate. His work critically examines the dynamics of housing markets and how they perpetuate segregation and inequality, often highlighting the roles that government policies and institutional practices play in these processes. Hyra's insights are vital for understanding the complexities of housing discrimination and its impacts on marginalized communities.
Digital redlining: Digital redlining refers to the systematic exclusion of certain communities, particularly marginalized and low-income populations, from accessing digital resources, such as high-speed internet and technology services. This exclusion often mirrors traditional housing discrimination and segregation, perpetuating inequalities and limiting opportunities for education, employment, and social engagement in the digital age.
Exclusionary zoning: Exclusionary zoning refers to land use regulations that aim to control the types of housing that can be built in a particular area, often resulting in the exclusion of low-income and minority populations. This practice can manifest through requirements such as minimum lot sizes, prohibitions on multifamily housing, and other restrictive policies that favor wealthier residents. The consequences often contribute to broader patterns of housing discrimination and segregation, limiting access to affordable housing for marginalized groups.
Fair Housing Act: The Fair Housing Act is a landmark piece of legislation enacted in 1968 that prohibits discrimination in housing based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability. This act was a significant step towards addressing systemic housing discrimination and segregation, aiming to promote equal access to housing opportunities for all individuals.
Gentrification: Gentrification is the process of urban transformation that occurs when wealthier individuals move into a previously lower-income neighborhood, leading to increased property values and the displacement of long-term residents. This phenomenon often involves the renovation of housing and the influx of new businesses, which can drastically change the cultural and economic landscape of the area.
Gentrification Displacement: Gentrification displacement refers to the process in which long-term residents of a neighborhood are forced to move out due to rising property values and living costs, often resulting from an influx of more affluent residents and businesses. This phenomenon is closely tied to urban redevelopment and economic changes, leading to social and cultural shifts within the affected communities.
HOPE VI Program: The HOPE VI Program is a federal initiative launched in 1992 aimed at revitalizing severely distressed public housing developments in the United States. By focusing on demolition, rehabilitation, and the creation of mixed-income communities, this program addresses the issues of housing discrimination and segregation while promoting affordable housing options for low-income families.
Housing equity: Housing equity refers to the value of a homeowner's interest in their property, calculated by subtracting the amount owed on any mortgages from the current market value of the home. It plays a critical role in determining financial stability and access to wealth for individuals and families. When housing equity increases, homeowners may have more resources available for investments, education, or retirement, while systemic barriers like discrimination can hinder these opportunities for marginalized groups.
Hypersegregation: Hypersegregation refers to an extreme form of residential segregation where certain racial or ethnic groups are isolated from others in multiple dimensions, such as living in neighborhoods with little diversity, limited access to resources, and concentrated poverty. This phenomenon is often perpetuated by systemic issues like discriminatory housing practices, which deepen the social and economic divides among communities. It can result in significant disparities in educational opportunities, healthcare access, and overall quality of life for affected populations.
Income Segregation: Income segregation refers to the separation of individuals or households into different neighborhoods based on their income levels. This phenomenon often leads to the formation of areas with concentrated wealth or poverty, impacting access to resources such as education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. The effects of income segregation are closely tied to issues like housing discrimination and broader social inequalities.
Institutional Discrimination: Institutional discrimination refers to the systematic and often unintentional practices, policies, and procedures within institutions that result in the unequal treatment of individuals based on their race, ethnicity, gender, or other characteristics. This form of discrimination is embedded within the structures and operations of organizations, leading to disadvantages for certain groups over time. The effects of institutional discrimination can perpetuate social inequalities and disparities, making it a critical issue in understanding broader societal dynamics.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how various social identities such as race, gender, sexuality, class, and others overlap and interact to create unique experiences of oppression or privilege. This concept emphasizes that individuals can simultaneously belong to multiple social groups, which impacts their experiences and opportunities in complex ways.
Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.: Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. is a landmark Supreme Court case from 1968 that addressed racial discrimination in housing and reinforced the Fair Housing Act. The decision affirmed that the federal government had the authority to prohibit private racial discrimination in housing sales and rentals, marking a significant step toward combating systemic racism in housing markets. This case underscored the legal framework surrounding civil rights and the ongoing struggle against discriminatory practices in real estate.
Mhaney Management v. County of Nassau: Mhaney Management v. County of Nassau is a significant legal case addressing housing discrimination and the enforcement of fair housing laws. The case centers around allegations that the county engaged in discriminatory practices that adversely affected the ability of certain groups to access housing opportunities, highlighting systemic issues in local governance and enforcement mechanisms related to fair housing.
National Fair Housing Alliance: The National Fair Housing Alliance (NFHA) is a non-profit organization dedicated to eliminating housing discrimination and promoting equal housing opportunities for all individuals. It serves as a leading advocate for fair housing rights, raising awareness about discrimination practices and working with various stakeholders to enforce fair housing laws, particularly focusing on the impact of segregation in housing.
Neighborhood disparity: Neighborhood disparity refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and living conditions among different neighborhoods, often influenced by socio-economic status, race, and housing policies. This concept highlights how certain areas experience advantages or disadvantages that affect residents' quality of life, access to services, and overall community well-being. Such disparities are frequently linked to historical patterns of housing discrimination and segregation, which contribute to systemic inequalities in urban environments.
Predatory lending practices: Predatory lending practices refer to unfair, deceptive, or fraudulent tactics used by lenders to entice borrowers into high-interest loans with unfavorable terms. These practices often target vulnerable populations, leading to financial strain and potential loss of homes. By exploiting weaknesses in the understanding of financial agreements, these lenders contribute to a cycle of debt and perpetuate housing discrimination and segregation.
Racial enclaves: Racial enclaves are geographic areas where a specific racial or ethnic group is concentrated, often as a result of historical patterns of segregation, discrimination, and housing policies. These enclaves can provide cultural solidarity and community support for residents, but they may also reflect broader systemic inequalities that limit access to resources and opportunities outside of the enclave.
Racial steering: Racial steering is the practice where real estate agents guide potential homebuyers towards or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race or ethnicity. This practice contributes to housing discrimination and segregation by limiting the options available to individuals and reinforcing existing racial divides in communities. It often operates subtly, with agents providing biased information that can influence buyers’ decisions without overtly stating their intentions.
Redlining: Redlining is a discriminatory practice where banks and insurance companies deny services or impose unfair conditions on residents in certain neighborhoods based on the racial or ethnic composition of those areas. This practice has significant consequences, perpetuating cycles of poverty and segregation, as it limits access to essential resources such as housing, education, and employment opportunities for marginalized communities.
Reparations programs: Reparations programs are initiatives aimed at compensating individuals or groups who have suffered injustices or harm due to systemic discrimination, particularly relating to historical injustices. These programs often seek to address the long-term impacts of such injustices, including economic disparities, social inequities, and cultural erasure, especially in contexts where housing discrimination and segregation have played significant roles in perpetuating inequality.
Segregation Index: The segregation index is a quantitative measure used to assess the degree of racial or ethnic segregation within a geographic area, often calculated based on residential patterns. It reflects how isolated or integrated different racial or ethnic groups are in terms of housing and can indicate the extent of housing discrimination and its impact on communities. A higher segregation index indicates a greater level of separation between groups, revealing systemic inequalities in access to housing and resources.
Social isolation: Social isolation is a state in which an individual lacks a sense of belonging or connection to others, often resulting in feelings of loneliness and disconnection. This term highlights the impacts of being excluded from social networks and relationships, which can lead to detrimental effects on mental and physical health, especially in communities affected by discrimination and segregation.
Structural racism: Structural racism refers to the systemic policies, practices, and cultural norms that create and perpetuate racial inequalities within institutions and society as a whole. It manifests in various forms such as discriminatory laws, unequal access to resources, and societal biases that disadvantage specific racial groups while privileging others. This deeply entrenched form of racism often operates invisibly, shaping societal outcomes in ways that are not always immediately apparent.
Suburban poverty: Suburban poverty refers to the phenomenon of increasing rates of poverty in suburban areas, which were traditionally viewed as affluent and stable. This shift has brought new challenges, including a lack of resources and services that are often more available in urban settings, impacting the quality of life for low-income families in these areas. The rise in suburban poverty is closely linked to factors like housing discrimination and segregation, as marginalized communities face barriers to accessing affordable housing in better-resourced neighborhoods.
Suburbanization: Suburbanization is the process of population movement from within cities to the outskirts or suburbs, often characterized by the growth of residential areas that surround urban centers. This shift has significant implications for housing discrimination and segregation, as it often leads to the creation of homogenous communities, where certain racial and socioeconomic groups are concentrated, perpetuating inequalities.
Surveys: Surveys are research tools used to gather data and insights from a group of people, typically through questionnaires or interviews. They play a critical role in understanding public opinions, behaviors, and experiences, especially regarding social issues such as housing and immigrant integration. Surveys can provide quantitative data for statistical analysis or qualitative insights for deeper understanding of people's perspectives.
Systemic racism: Systemic racism refers to the policies, practices, and structures that create and maintain racial inequality and discrimination within society. It manifests through institutional norms that disadvantage marginalized racial groups, affecting various aspects of life including education, employment, housing, and healthcare. This term connects to broader discussions on identity, privilege, socialization, and the historical context of racial disparities.
Texas Department of Housing v. Inclusive Communities Project: Texas Department of Housing v. Inclusive Communities Project is a landmark Supreme Court case from 2015 that addressed whether disparate impact claims can be brought under the Fair Housing Act. The ruling confirmed that practices that have a discriminatory effect, even if not intentionally discriminatory, can be challenged, impacting housing discrimination and segregation significantly.
Tipping Point Theory: Tipping point theory is a concept that describes how small changes can lead to significant and often irreversible shifts in social behaviors, trends, or phenomena. This theory illustrates that there can be a critical threshold at which a minor action or event can trigger a major change, especially in the context of social dynamics such as housing discrimination and segregation.