8.3 Political and social resistance to civil rights
3 min read•august 7, 2024
The Civil Rights Movement faced fierce opposition in Alabama. White supremacists used laws, violence, and economic pressure to maintain . Politicians like and became symbols of resistance, blocking integration and brutally suppressing protests.
The struggle for equality exposed deep-rooted racism in Alabama society. Segregationists formed organizations like and the to intimidate activists. Their tactics ranged from economic boycotts to violent attacks, revealing the challenges faced by civil rights advocates.
Discriminatory Laws and Policies
Legalized Segregation and Discrimination
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- enacted in Southern states after Reconstruction
- Mandated racial segregation in public facilities (schools, transportation, restrooms, restaurants)
- Restricted voting rights through literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses
- Upheld by Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) "separate but equal" doctrine
- strategy employed by Southern states to oppose desegregation
- Closure of public schools to avoid integration (Prince Edward County, Virginia)
- and to challenge federal authority
- Passage of laws to obstruct civil rights legislation and court orders
Political Opposition to Civil Rights
- , a political party formed by Southern Democrats in 1948
- Opposed civil rights legislation and desegregation efforts
- Nominated Strom Thurmond for president on a segregationist platform
- Demonstrated the willingness of Southern politicians to prioritize over party loyalty
- White Citizens' Councils organized to resist desegregation
- Consisted of influential white community leaders (politicians, business owners, professionals)
- Promoted segregation through economic pressure, propaganda, and political influence
- Portrayed themselves as respectable alternatives to the Ku Klux Klan
White Supremacist Organizations
Ku Klux Klan
- White supremacist hate group that used violence and intimidation to maintain racial hierarchy
- Lynchings, beatings, and bombings targeting African Americans and civil rights activists
- Burned crosses and wore white hoods to conceal identity and instill fear
- Experienced resurgence in membership during the Civil Rights Movement
- Ku Klux Klan operated with impunity due to complicity of local law enforcement and officials
- Infiltration of police departments and political offices
- Lack of prosecution for crimes committed by Klan members
- Collusion between Klan and authorities to suppress civil rights activism
Economic and Social Pressure
- White Citizens' Councils exerted economic pressure to enforce segregation and punish activists
- Boycotts of businesses that served African American customers or supported desegregation
- Firing of employees who participated in civil rights activities or registered to vote
- Eviction of tenants and denial of credit to those who challenged the racial status quo
- Social ostracism and public humiliation used to deter civil rights activism
- Publication of names of NAACP members and supporters in newspapers
- Shunning and exclusion from white social circles and community events
- Spreading rumors and false accusations to discredit civil rights leaders
Prominent Segregationist Figures
George Wallace
- Governor of Alabama and staunch segregationist
- Delivered inaugural address "Segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever"
- Blocked doorway of University of Alabama to prevent enrollment of African American students
- Ran for president on a segregationist platform in 1968 and 1972
- Wallace's defiance of federal authority and promotion of states' rights
- Capitalized on white resentment and resistance to civil rights progress
- Portrayed himself as a defender of Southern way of life and white supremacy
- Encouraged and validated anti-civil rights sentiment among white Alabamians
Bull Connor
- Commissioner of Public Safety in Birmingham, Alabama
- Enforced segregation and suppressed civil rights demonstrations with violence
- Unleashed police dogs and fire hoses on peaceful protesters, including children
- Arrested and jailed activists engaging in sit-ins, freedom rides, and marches
- Connor's brutality and racism exposed the depths of white supremacy
- Images of his tactics shocked the nation and galvanized support for civil rights
- Revealed the willingness of segregationists to use state power to maintain racial hierarchy
- Demonstrated the necessity of federal intervention to protect the rights of African Americans
Key Terms to Review (25)
Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights: The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) was a significant civil rights organization founded in 1956, focused on advocating for African American rights and social justice in Alabama. It played a crucial role in the fight against racial segregation and discrimination, serving as a grassroots movement that mobilized local communities, organized protests, and engaged in nonviolent resistance strategies. The ACMHR's work set the stage for broader civil rights efforts throughout the South and highlighted the importance of faith-based activism in the movement.
Birmingham Campaign: The Birmingham Campaign was a series of nonviolent protests led by civil rights activists in Birmingham, Alabama, during 1963 aimed at combating racial segregation and discrimination. This campaign became a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, highlighting both the struggles for equality and the intense resistance faced by activists, which sparked national attention and laid the groundwork for future civil rights legislation.
Black power movement: The black power movement was a social and political movement in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s that sought to empower African Americans and promote racial pride, self-determination, and political activism. It emerged as a response to systemic racism and the limitations of the civil rights movement, advocating for a more militant approach to achieving equality and justice for Black Americans.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. This ruling effectively overturned the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson and became a pivotal moment in the fight for civil rights, highlighting the systemic inequalities that African American students faced and energizing movements aimed at desegregating schools and public spaces.
Bull Connor: Bull Connor was an American politician and the Commissioner of Public Safety for Birmingham, Alabama, known for his aggressive and often brutal tactics in opposing the civil rights movement during the 1960s. His actions, particularly the use of police dogs and fire hoses against peaceful protesters, became emblematic of the violent resistance to civil rights and highlighted the deep-seated racism in the American South.
Disenfranchisement: Disenfranchisement is the process of depriving individuals or groups of their right to vote or participate in political processes. This practice has often been used to suppress certain populations, particularly African Americans and poor whites in the South, as a means of maintaining white supremacy and political control. Disenfranchisement laws and tactics have evolved over time, including literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation, all aimed at undermining the political power of marginalized communities.
Dixiecrats: Dixiecrats were members of the States' Rights Democratic Party, a political faction that emerged in the southern United States during the 1948 presidential election, primarily in response to the civil rights movement. This group sought to maintain segregation and resist federal intervention in state affairs, rallying around a platform that emphasized white supremacy and states' rights. The Dixiecrats represented a significant political and social resistance to the civil rights advancements happening across the nation during that time.
Filibuster: A filibuster is a legislative tactic used to delay or prevent a vote on a bill by extending debate or using other procedural maneuvers. This technique is often associated with the U.S. Senate, where it can be used to block civil rights legislation, reflecting the political and social resistance that arose during the civil rights movement. Filibusters can significantly impact the legislative process, making it a powerful tool for those opposing reforms.
Freedom riders: Freedom riders were civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated southern United States in the early 1960s to challenge and protest racial segregation. They aimed to test a Supreme Court ruling that declared segregated public transportation unconstitutional, drawing national attention to the injustices faced by African Americans in the South. Their actions sparked violent reactions and highlighted the ongoing struggle for civil rights in places like Alabama, showcasing both the courage of the riders and the fierce resistance they encountered.
George Wallace: George Wallace was an influential American politician and the 45th governor of Alabama, known for his staunch support of segregation during the Civil Rights Movement. His infamous stance against desegregation, marked by the phrase 'Segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever,' made him a symbol of political and social resistance to civil rights in the 1960s, while his later political evolution reflected changing dynamics in Alabama's political landscape.
Interposition: Interposition is a legal and political doctrine that asserts a state has the right to intervene or 'interpose' itself against federal actions it deems unconstitutional. This concept became a significant means of political and social resistance to civil rights advancements, especially in the Southern United States during the 20th century, as states sought to maintain segregation and resist federal mandates aimed at promoting racial equality.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans from the late 19th century until the civil rights movement of the 1960s. These laws established a system of institutionalized racism that affected various aspects of daily life, including education, employment, transportation, and public facilities, reinforcing social hierarchies and economic inequalities.
Ku Klux Klan: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is a white supremacist hate group that emerged in the United States during the Reconstruction era, known for its violent actions against African Americans and other minority groups. The Klan's influence grew in Alabama during Reconstruction, as it sought to undermine the social and political advancements made by African Americans. This group re-emerged in the 1920s, capitalizing on economic and social changes, and became a powerful force against civil rights movements in the mid-20th century.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent leader of the American Civil Rights Movement, known for his philosophy of nonviolent resistance and his pivotal role in advancing civil rights through peaceful protests. His work in Alabama, particularly during the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Selma to Montgomery marches, highlighted the struggle against racial segregation and discrimination, which ultimately transformed social and political landscapes.
Mass protests: Mass protests are large-scale demonstrations organized by a significant number of individuals who come together to express their collective grievances, demands, or aspirations. These protests are often characterized by their public nature, aiming to draw attention to social injustices or political issues, and can influence public opinion and policy changes.
Massive resistance: Massive resistance refers to the strategy employed by white segregationists in the United States, particularly in the South, to prevent the desegregation of public schools and other public facilities following the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. This approach involved a combination of legal, political, and social actions aimed at maintaining the status quo of racial segregation, often resulting in violent confrontations and civil unrest. The concept reflects a broader climate of opposition to civil rights advancements during this period.
Nullification: Nullification is the theory that states have the right to invalidate any federal law that they believe violates the Constitution. This idea became particularly significant during the early 19th century, as it highlighted tensions between state and federal authority, especially in the South. It was used as a means for southern states to resist federal laws perceived as harmful to their interests, particularly concerning slavery and tariffs, leading to a more polarized political climate and contributing to secessionist sentiments.
Racial hostility: Racial hostility refers to antagonistic attitudes and actions directed against individuals or groups based on their race or ethnicity. This concept manifests in various forms, including discrimination, violence, and systemic inequities, often as a reaction to movements advocating for civil rights and social justice.
Segregation: Segregation refers to the enforced separation of different racial or ethnic groups, often resulting in unequal treatment and access to resources. In the context of American history, particularly in the South, segregation became institutionalized through laws and practices that created and maintained a racial divide in public spaces, education, and economic opportunities, heavily impacting the lives of African Americans and shaping social dynamics.
Selma to Montgomery marches: The Selma to Montgomery marches were a series of three protest marches held in 1965 to advocate for voting rights for African Americans in the South. These marches were crucial in raising awareness about racial discrimination and led to the Voting Rights Act of 1965, a landmark piece of legislation that aimed to eliminate barriers to voting for African Americans, thus serving as a significant moment in the broader fight for civil rights amidst political and social resistance.
Shelby County v. Holder: Shelby County v. Holder is a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 2013 that invalidated key provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, particularly targeting the formula used to determine which jurisdictions required federal approval before changing voting laws. This decision effectively weakened federal oversight of state voting laws, leading to increased political and social resistance to civil rights protections, especially in Southern states, and reshaping the political landscape in Alabama and beyond since the 1970s.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) is a civil rights organization founded in 1957, led by prominent African American leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr. Its primary goal was to advance the cause of civil rights in America through nonviolent protest and grassroots organizing. The SCLC played a crucial role in the Civil Rights Movement, especially in mobilizing communities and advocating for desegregation and voting rights, which faced significant political and social resistance during this period.
Voting Rights Act Opposition: Voting Rights Act Opposition refers to the resistance and pushback against the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to eliminate racial discrimination in voting. This opposition manifested through various political, social, and legal challenges from individuals, organizations, and governmental entities that sought to maintain the status quo of voter suppression, particularly in Southern states. The conflict surrounding this landmark legislation reveals the deep-rooted societal tensions and the ongoing struggle for civil rights in America.
White citizens' councils: White citizens' councils were local organizations formed in the southern United States during the civil rights movement, primarily in response to desegregation and efforts to achieve racial equality. These councils aimed to maintain white supremacy by organizing resistance against civil rights initiatives through intimidation, economic pressure, and political influence. They played a significant role in fostering an environment of fear and hostility toward African Americans and their allies during this tumultuous period.
White supremacy: White supremacy is an ideology that promotes the belief that white people are superior to those of other racial backgrounds and should therefore dominate society. This belief system has historically fueled discriminatory practices and policies that resist civil rights advancements, impacting social and political landscapes.