🌽History of Native Americans in the Southwest Unit 12 – Indian New Deal: Tribal Reorganization

Background and Context

• Indian New Deal emerged during the Great Depression era in the 1930s as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's broader New Deal policies
• Aimed to address the dire economic, social, and cultural conditions faced by Native American communities across the United States
• Sought to reverse the damaging effects of previous federal policies such as allotment and assimilation (Dawes Act of 1887)
• Recognized the need for a new approach to Native American affairs that respected tribal sovereignty and cultural traditions
• Influenced by the Meriam Report of 1928, which highlighted the poor living conditions and inadequate government services in Native American communities
• Coincided with a shift in public opinion towards greater sympathy and understanding of Native American issues
• Reflected a growing interest in cultural pluralism and the preservation of indigenous cultures in the United States

Key Figures and Policies

• John Collier served as Commissioner of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 and was the primary architect of the Indian New Deal
  • Advocated for greater tribal autonomy, cultural preservation, and economic development
  • Sought to end the allotment policy and restore tribal land bases
• Other key figures included Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes and anthropologist Oliver La Farge
• Major policies included the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934, which formed the cornerstone of the Indian New Deal
• Additional policies focused on education reform, health care improvements, and the promotion of Native American arts and crafts
• Collier also pushed for the creation of the Indian Arts and Crafts Board to support and promote Native American artistic traditions
• The Johnson-O'Malley Act of 1934 provided federal funding for education, health care, and social welfare services in Native American communities

Goals of the Indian New Deal

• Reverse the damaging effects of previous federal policies such as allotment and forced assimilation
• Strengthen tribal governments and promote greater tribal autonomy in decision-making processes
• Improve the economic conditions in Native American communities through job creation, land restoration, and resource development
• Preserve and revitalize Native American cultural traditions, languages, and religious practices
• Provide better access to education, health care, and social services for Native American individuals and families
• Foster a more collaborative and respectful relationship between the federal government and Native American tribes
• Address the findings of the Meriam Report and improve the overall quality of life in Native American communities

The Indian Reorganization Act

• Passed by Congress in 1934, the IRA served as the centerpiece of the Indian New Deal
• Ended the allotment policy and restored millions of acres of land to tribal ownership
  • Allowed tribes to organize and adopt constitutions for self-governance
  • Provided for the establishment of tribal business councils to manage economic development projects
• Established a revolving credit fund to provide loans for tribal economic development initiatives
• Encouraged the formation of tribal corporations to manage resources and engage in business ventures
• Allowed for the voluntary exchange of allotted lands for interests in tribal corporations
• Provided for the preferential hiring of Native Americans in the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
• Authorized the Secretary of the Interior to acquire additional lands for tribes and establish new reservations

Tribal Governance Changes

• IRA encouraged tribes to adopt written constitutions and establish democratic forms of government
  • Many tribes held referendums to decide whether to accept the provisions of the IRA
  • Some tribes, such as the Navajo Nation, initially rejected the IRA but later adopted similar governance structures
• Tribal councils gained greater authority over internal affairs, including land management and resource development
• BIA maintained significant oversight powers, leading to tensions between tribal governments and federal officials
• Some traditional leadership structures were replaced or modified to conform with the IRA model
  • This led to conflicts between "progressives" who embraced the IRA and "traditionalists" who sought to preserve existing governance systems
• Tribal constitutions often included provisions for the protection of individual rights and the separation of powers

Economic and Cultural Impacts

• Indian New Deal policies led to some improvements in economic conditions for Native American communities
  • Revolving credit fund provided access to capital for tribal businesses and development projects
  • Land restoration and the establishment of tribal corporations allowed for greater control over resources
• However, economic progress was limited by inadequate funding, bureaucratic obstacles, and the challenges of the Great Depression era
• Cultural preservation efforts included support for Native American arts and crafts, language revitalization programs, and the protection of sacred sites
  • Indian Arts and Crafts Board promoted the authenticity and marketability of Native American art
  • Boarding schools began to incorporate more culturally relevant curricula and allow greater use of Native languages
• Despite these efforts, many assimilationist policies and practices persisted, and cultural loss continued to be a significant issue for Native American communities

Criticisms and Controversies

• Some Native American leaders and activists criticized the IRA for imposing a one-size-fits-all approach to tribal governance
  • Argued that the IRA constitutions did not always reflect traditional leadership structures and values
  • Felt that the BIA retained too much control over tribal affairs
• Others believed that the IRA did not go far enough in restoring tribal sovereignty and addressing the legacy of colonialism
• The IRA's emphasis on economic development and individual property rights was seen by some as a continuation of assimilationist policies
• Controversy surrounded the BIA's role in overseeing tribal elections and the implementation of IRA provisions
  • Some accused BIA officials of manipulating elections and favoring "progressive" candidates over traditional leaders
• Critics argued that the Indian New Deal failed to adequately address issues such as poverty, health disparities, and the loss of cultural identity

Legacy and Long-term Effects

• The Indian New Deal marked a significant shift in federal Indian policy and laid the foundation for modern tribal self-governance
• Many of the IRA's provisions, such as tribal constitutions and business councils, remain in place today
• The restoration of tribal land bases and the establishment of tribal corporations have had lasting impacts on Native American communities
  • Enabled tribes to assert greater control over their resources and pursue economic development opportunities
  • However, many tribes continue to struggle with issues such as poverty, unemployment, and environmental degradation
• The Indian New Deal's cultural preservation efforts have contributed to the revitalization of Native American arts, crafts, and languages
  • However, the legacy of assimilationist policies and cultural loss continues to be felt in many communities
• The IRA's legacy is complex and contested, with ongoing debates about its effectiveness and impact on Native American sovereignty and self-determination
• The Indian New Deal's policies and programs have been modified and built upon by subsequent legislation, such as the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975