9.1 The rise of the women's movement and changing gender roles
5 min read•august 15, 2024
The women's movement in New Zealand gained momentum in the late 19th century, inspired by international feminist movements and economic shifts. Women fought for their rights, challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for change in education, politics, and society.
The movement's impact was profound, leading to legislative changes like women's suffrage in 1893 and property rights for married women. It also sparked broader discussions on social justice, though societal attitudes were slow to change and stereotypes persisted.
Rise of the Women's Movement in New Zealand
International Influences and Economic Changes
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- International feminist movements from Britain and the United States inspired New Zealand women to advocate for their rights
- Economic shifts towards urbanization and industrialization created new opportunities for women's participation in the workforce and public sphere
- Temperance movement provided a platform for women to engage in political activism and develop organizational skills ()
- Colonial context of New Zealand allowed for greater flexibility in challenging traditional gender roles due to relatively fluid social structures
- Less rigid class system compared to Britain
- Frontier mentality fostered adaptability and independence
Educational Reforms and Leadership
- Late 19th century educational reforms empowered women with knowledge and critical thinking skills
- Establishment of girls' secondary schools (Otago Girls' High School, 1871)
- Women's admission to universities (Kate Edger, first woman to graduate in New Zealand, 1877)
- Prominent figures emerged as influential leaders of the women's movement
- articulated demands and mobilized support through speeches and writings
- Mary Ann Müller published influential pamphlets under the pseudonym "Femina"
- National Council of Women established in 1896 to provide a unified voice for women's issues
- Coordinated efforts of various women's organizations
- Lobbied government on issues such as education, employment, and political rights
Impact of the Women's Movement on New Zealand
Legislative Changes
- granted women the right to vote
- Made New Zealand the first self-governing country to enact women's suffrage
- Resulted from sustained campaigning and petitioning by women's groups
- Married Women's Property Act of 1884 allowed married women to own property independently
- Marked significant shift in legal recognition of women's rights
- Enabled women to control their own finances and assets
- and subsequent amendments improved women's legal standing in marriage
- Expanded grounds for divorce
- Provided greater protection for women in cases of domestic violence
- and equal pay legislation in mid-20th century
- extended principles to private sector
Societal Attitudes and Broader Impact
- Gradual shift in acceptance of women in professional roles and public office
- became first woman elected to New Zealand Parliament in 1933
- Increased visibility of women in fields like law, medicine, and academia
- Women's movement contributed to broader discussions on social justice
- Influenced debates on Māori rights and welfare policies
- Intersected with other progressive movements (labor rights, anti-racism)
- Persistent stereotypes and resistance to change
- Continued expectations of women's primary role as homemakers
- Challenges in balancing career and family responsibilities
Evolution of Gender Roles in New Zealand
Changing Work and Family Dynamics
- Traditional Victorian ideals of separate spheres for men and women gradually challenged
- Women entered workforce in greater numbers, particularly in manufacturing and service industries
- World Wars significantly impacted gender roles
- Women took on traditionally male occupations during wartime (munitions factories, farming)
- Post-war periods saw some reversion to pre-war norms, but also lasting changes
- Rise of consumer culture and household technologies in mid-20th century influenced domestic gender roles
- Appliances like washing machines and vacuum cleaners altered household labor
- Increased emphasis on women as consumers and household managers
- Nuclear family model became more prevalent
- Altered expectations of parenthood and domestic responsibilities for both men and women
- Emphasis on and shared decision-making
Social and Cultural Shifts
- Concept of the "" emerged in early 20th century
- Embodied ideals of independence, education, and political engagement for women
- Challenged traditional notions of femininity and women's roles in society
- Changes in fashion and social norms reflected evolving attitudes towards women's freedom
- Shorter hemlines and less restrictive clothing (1920s flapper style)
- Increased participation in sports and physical activities
- Educational opportunities for women expanded
- Increased representation in professions such as teaching and nursing
- Gradual entry into fields like law and medicine
- , first woman admitted as a barrister and solicitor in New Zealand (1897)
Gender Equality in New Zealand: Challenges vs Achievements
Political Representation and Leadership
- Women's representation in parliament remained low until late 20th century
- Significant increases following introduction of in 1996
- 2020 election resulted in 48% female MPs, highest proportion in New Zealand history
- Notable milestones in women's leadership achieved
- Multiple female Prime Ministers (, , )
- Female Governors-General (, , )
- Ongoing efforts to increase women's representation in local government and corporate leadership
- Initiatives like the Ministry for Women's Nominations Service
- Debates around quotas and targets for board diversity
Economic and Social Challenges
- Gender pay gap persists, though narrowing over time
- 2021 gender pay gap: 9.1% (down from 16.3% in 1998)
- Variations across industries and ethnic groups
- Efforts to address domestic violence and sexual harassment gained prominence
- expanded legal protections
- raised awareness and sparked policy changes
- recognized as key consideration in achieving equality
- Unique challenges faced by Māori, Pacific, and other minority women
- Initiatives to address cultural and socioeconomic factors affecting equality
- Parental leave policies evolved to promote shared responsibilities
- extended to 26 weeks in 2020
- Introduction of partner's leave to encourage fathers' involvement
- Ongoing debates around abortion rights, childcare provision, and work-life balance
- Abortion law reform in 2020 decriminalized the procedure
- Discussions on affordable childcare and flexible work arrangements
Key Terms to Review (37)
#metoo movement: The #metoo movement is a social movement against sexual harassment and assault, primarily focused on the workplace and other environments where power dynamics can enable such behaviors. It gained global attention in late 2017 after numerous high-profile allegations of sexual misconduct came to light, encouraging individuals to share their experiences and prompting widespread discussions about consent, accountability, and the necessity for systemic change. The movement has been instrumental in raising awareness about gender-based violence and fostering a collective sense of empowerment among survivors.
1920s women's rights activism: 1920s women's rights activism refers to the organized efforts by women during the 1920s to advocate for equal rights, particularly in areas such as suffrage, employment, and education. This period marked a significant shift in gender roles as women increasingly sought independence and social change following the success of the suffrage movement, which culminated in women gaining the right to vote in many countries.
Anti-nuclear protests: Anti-nuclear protests refer to the organized demonstrations and activism opposing the development, testing, and deployment of nuclear weapons and power. These protests gained significant momentum during the Cold War era, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s, as fears over nuclear war escalated. In New Zealand, these movements not only highlighted environmental concerns but also engaged women's groups, reflecting broader societal shifts in gender roles and activism.
Companionate marriage: Companionate marriage is a type of marital relationship that emphasizes emotional intimacy, mutual respect, and partnership between spouses, rather than traditional roles based on economic necessity or societal expectations. This concept emerged in response to changing social norms, particularly influenced by the women's movement, which advocated for greater gender equality and individual fulfillment within the family structure.
Dame Catherine Tizard: Dame Catherine Tizard is a prominent New Zealand politician and the first female Governor-General of New Zealand, serving from 1990 to 1996. Her tenure marked a significant moment in New Zealand's history, highlighting the increasing visibility and influence of women in political roles and reflecting the broader changes in gender dynamics and the women's movement during that time.
Dame Patsy Reddy: Dame Patsy Reddy is a prominent New Zealand public figure who served as the Governor-General from 2016 to 2021. Her appointment as the first female Governor-General in a decade reflects the evolving role of women in New Zealand's political landscape and showcases the increasing recognition of women's contributions to governance and leadership.
Dame Silvia Cartwright: Dame Silvia Cartwright is a distinguished New Zealand lawyer, judge, and advocate for women's rights who served as the first female Governor-General of New Zealand from 2001 to 2006. Her appointment marked a significant milestone in the history of gender roles and the advancement of women in positions of power within New Zealand, reflecting broader trends in the rise of the women's movement.
Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1867: The Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act 1867 was a significant piece of legislation in New Zealand that reformed the legal process surrounding divorce, allowing for greater access and more streamlined procedures. This act marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of family law, reflecting broader societal changes in attitudes towards marriage, gender roles, and the rights of women in a rapidly modernizing society.
Electoral Act 1893: The Electoral Act 1893 was a landmark piece of legislation in New Zealand that granted women the right to vote in parliamentary elections. This act marked a significant shift in gender roles and social norms, as it recognized women's political rights and paved the way for greater participation in the democratic process, reflecting the rise of the women's movement during that period.
Elizabeth McCombs: Elizabeth McCombs was the first woman elected to the New Zealand Parliament in 1933, marking a significant milestone in the rise of women's political representation in the country. Her election symbolized the changing gender roles and the growing influence of the women's movement, as she broke through societal barriers and paved the way for future female politicians.
Equal Pay Act 1972: The Equal Pay Act 1972 is legislation in New Zealand that mandates equal pay for men and women performing the same work. This act was a significant milestone in addressing wage disparities and was a key achievement for the women’s movement, which sought to challenge traditional gender roles and promote gender equality in the workplace.
Ethel Benjamin: Ethel Benjamin was the first female lawyer in New Zealand, admitted to the bar in 1913, marking a significant milestone in the history of women's rights and professional opportunities in the country. Her achievements symbolize the broader women's movement and the gradual change in gender roles that took place during the early 20th century, as women began to break into traditionally male-dominated fields such as law.
Family Violence Act 2018: The Family Violence Act 2018 is New Zealand legislation aimed at reforming the legal response to family violence. It strengthens protections for victims, enhances support services, and emphasizes a holistic approach to address the complexities of family violence, reflecting the evolving understanding of gender roles and societal expectations in the context of the women's movement.
Feminist historiography: Feminist historiography refers to the practice of re-examining historical narratives and interpretations from a feminist perspective, highlighting women's roles, experiences, and contributions that have often been overlooked or marginalized in traditional historical accounts. It challenges the male-centered narratives by including women's voices and perspectives, thereby reshaping our understanding of history and changing gender roles within societies.
Gender equality: Gender equality refers to the equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities for individuals of all genders. It seeks to ensure that everyone, regardless of gender, has the same access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making processes, fostering an environment where all can thrive equally. This concept is crucial in understanding historical movements aimed at achieving women's rights and social reforms as well as recognizing shifts in societal roles and expectations across genders.
Gender representation in parliament: Gender representation in parliament refers to the inclusion and participation of individuals of different genders, particularly women, in legislative bodies. This concept is crucial for ensuring that diverse perspectives are represented in policymaking processes, leading to more equitable and effective governance. Increased gender representation can challenge traditional power dynamics and promote gender equality in society.
Gendered division of labor: The gendered division of labor refers to the social and economic practice where different tasks and responsibilities are assigned to individuals based on their gender. This concept highlights how societies have historically categorized work, often relegating women to roles that are considered nurturing or domestic while placing men in positions of power and authority, particularly in public and economic spheres. This division has significant implications for gender equality and the roles women can play in society, particularly during times of social change.
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960: The Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960 was a landmark piece of legislation in New Zealand that aimed to eliminate pay disparities based on gender within the public service sector. This act marked a significant step in the broader women's movement by formally recognizing the principle of equal pay for equal work, reinforcing changing gender roles and the push for women's rights in the workforce. It highlighted the increasing awareness of wage inequality and served as a catalyst for future reforms related to gender equality in employment.
Helen Clark: Helen Clark is a prominent New Zealand politician who served as the 36th Prime Minister from 1999 to 2008 and was the first woman to hold this office in New Zealand. Her leadership marked significant changes in government policies regarding gender equality, social justice, and environmental issues, shaping the political landscape of New Zealand and beyond.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how different aspects of a person's identity, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect and contribute to unique experiences of discrimination or privilege. This concept emphasizes that social categories are interconnected and cannot be examined in isolation, which is particularly relevant when discussing movements aimed at changing gender roles and the broader women's movement.
Introduction of maternity leave: The introduction of maternity leave refers to the formal establishment of policies that allow mothers to take time off work following the birth or adoption of a child, ensuring job protection and income support during this period. This significant change in labor policies emerged as part of the broader women's movement, advocating for equal rights and recognition of women's roles in both the workplace and family. The establishment of maternity leave not only highlighted the importance of women’s contributions to society but also challenged traditional gender roles and expectations around motherhood and employment.
Jacinda Ardern: Jacinda Ardern is a New Zealand politician who served as the Prime Minister from 2017 to 2023, known for her progressive policies and empathetic leadership style. Her tenure is marked by significant changes in gender representation in politics, reflecting the rise of women's movements and evolving gender roles in New Zealand society. Ardern has also been pivotal in shaping the national identity and responding to global challenges, advocating for social justice, climate change action, and public health reforms.
Jenny Shipley: Jenny Shipley was the first female Prime Minister of New Zealand, serving from December 1997 to November 1999. Her leadership marked a significant moment in the rise of women's representation in politics and reflected broader changes in gender roles and societal expectations during the late 20th century.
Kate Sheppard: Kate Sheppard was a prominent New Zealand suffragist and social reformer who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement, leading to New Zealand becoming the first self-governing country to grant women the right to vote in 1893. She is recognized for her relentless advocacy for women's rights and her ability to mobilize public support through petitions and grassroots campaigning, which significantly contributed to the development of a distinct New Zealand culture that embraced egalitarian values.
Margaret Mungheran: Margaret Mungheran was a prominent figure in the New Zealand women's movement, known for her advocacy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She played a significant role in challenging traditional gender roles and advancing women's rights, particularly in areas such as education, suffrage, and social reform. Her contributions helped to inspire other women to join the movement and seek equality in various aspects of society.
Married Women's Property Act 1884: The Married Women's Property Act 1884 was a significant piece of legislation in New Zealand that allowed married women to own and control property in their own right, separate from their husbands. This act marked an important milestone in the women's movement, as it challenged traditional gender roles by recognizing women's legal rights to manage their own assets and engage in financial transactions independently.
MMP Voting System: The Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) voting system is an electoral system used in New Zealand that combines both proportional representation and single-member districts. This system allows voters to cast two votes: one for a political party and one for a candidate in their local electorate. MMP was introduced to ensure that the overall composition of parliament reflects the preferences of voters, promoting a more inclusive and representative government.
National Council of Women of New Zealand: The National Council of Women of New Zealand (NCWNZ) is a non-partisan organization established in 1896 to promote the rights and interests of women across the country. It played a pivotal role in advocating for women's suffrage, social reform, and gender equality during a time when women were striving for greater recognition and rights within New Zealand society. The NCWNZ became a crucial platform for women to unite their voices and influence public policy and social change.
New woman: The term 'new woman' refers to a feminist ideal that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, symbolizing a shift in women’s roles, aspirations, and societal expectations. This concept challenged traditional notions of femininity by promoting women's independence, education, and involvement in public life, ultimately reshaping gender roles in society. It highlighted a generation of women who sought equality and opportunities beyond the domestic sphere.
Paid parental leave: Paid parental leave is a policy that allows parents to take time off work to care for their newborn or newly adopted children while receiving financial compensation. This term is significant as it reflects broader societal changes regarding gender roles, the recognition of family responsibilities, and the importance of supporting parents in the workforce. The introduction of paid parental leave represents a critical shift towards valuing caregiving as a vital role in society, emphasizing the need for both mothers and fathers to be involved in early child-rearing.
Patriarchy: Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. This structure often leads to systemic inequalities that affect women's rights and opportunities. The impact of patriarchy can be observed throughout history, particularly during movements advocating for women's suffrage and social reforms, where women fought against these established norms to gain equality and rights.
Pro-choice movement: The pro-choice movement advocates for the legal right of individuals to make decisions about their own reproductive health, particularly the choice to have an abortion. This movement emerged in response to restrictive laws and social stigma surrounding abortion, promoting the idea that women should have control over their bodies and reproductive choices. It has become a significant aspect of the broader women's rights movement, emphasizing autonomy and gender equality.
Social constructivism: Social constructivism is a theory that posits that knowledge and understanding are constructed through social interactions and shared experiences. This perspective emphasizes the role of culture, language, and context in shaping individual and collective perceptions of reality. By focusing on how social processes influence knowledge, it highlights the importance of collaboration and dialogue in learning, particularly in understanding concepts like gender roles and societal expectations.
Women's Christian Temperance Union: The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was a prominent organization founded in the late 19th century that aimed to promote temperance and social reform, primarily focusing on the reduction of alcohol consumption. The WCTU played a significant role in advocating for women's rights and suffrage, and it became a powerful force in the broader movements for nationalism and self-governance by connecting social issues to political activism.
Women’s liberation movement: The women’s liberation movement refers to a social and political campaign that emerged in the late 20th century, advocating for equal rights and opportunities for women. This movement aimed to challenge traditional gender roles, promote gender equality, and address issues such as reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and domestic violence. It sparked widespread activism and led to significant changes in societal attitudes toward women's roles both at home and in the workforce.
Women’s Suffrage Act 1893: The Women’s Suffrage Act 1893 was a landmark piece of legislation that granted New Zealand women the right to vote in parliamentary elections. This act represented a significant achievement in the women's movement, reflecting changing gender roles and the growing recognition of women's rights in society, paving the way for further advancements in gender equality.
Women's suffrage movement: The women's suffrage movement was a social and political campaign aimed at securing voting rights for women, advocating for their inclusion in democratic processes. This movement emerged as part of broader changes in societal attitudes toward gender roles and equality, challenging traditional norms and promoting the idea that women should have the same rights as men, particularly the right to vote. It played a crucial role in reshaping New Zealand's constitutional framework, ultimately leading to the country being the first self-governing nation to grant women the right to vote in 1893.