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Early polyphony marked a pivotal shift in Western music, evolving from monophonic chants to multi-voiced compositions. This development, rooted in Medieval Christian liturgy, laid the groundwork for complex harmonic structures in Renaissance music.

Emerging forms like organum and conductus showcased experimental combinations of voices, while innovations from the Notre Dame school refined these techniques. These advancements in composition and notation set the stage for the rich polyphonic traditions of the Renaissance era.

Origins of polyphony

  • Early polyphony emerged during the Medieval period as a significant development in Western music history
  • Represents a shift from monophonic to multi-voiced musical textures, laying the groundwork for complex harmonic structures in Renaissance music
  • Originated primarily in sacred music contexts, particularly within Christian liturgical practices

Gregorian chant foundations

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  • Monophonic plainchant served as the basis for early polyphonic experiments
  • Chant melodies provided the cantus firmus (fixed melody) for polyphonic compositions
  • Gregorian repertoire influenced the modal and melodic characteristics of early polyphonic works
  • Liturgical calendar and texts shaped the development of polyphonic forms

Emergence of organum

  • Organum marked the first systematic approach to combining multiple melodic lines
  • Initially involved adding a parallel voice to the existing chant melody
  • Evolved from simple parallel motion to more complex relationships between voices
  • Treatise "Musica Enchiriadis" (c. 900) provided early theoretical descriptions of organum techniques
  • Organum practice spread from monasteries to cathedral schools, fostering regional stylistic variations

Early polyphonic forms

  • Early polyphonic forms developed gradually from the 9th to 12th centuries
  • Represented experimental stages in combining multiple voices within a musical composition
  • Laid the foundation for more complex polyphonic structures in later medieval and Renaissance music

Parallel organum

  • Earliest form of organum, featuring strict parallel motion between voices
  • Voices moved in perfect fourths, fifths, or octaves above or below the original chant melody
  • Created a harmonically consonant but rhythmically rigid texture
  • Primarily used in liturgical settings to enhance the solemnity of chant performance
  • Gradually evolved to include occasional deviations from strict parallelism

Free organum

  • Allowed for greater independence between voices compared to parallel organum
  • Introduced contrary and oblique motion alongside parallel movement
  • Voices could move at different speeds, creating a more dynamic musical texture
  • Often featured a faster-moving upper voice against a slower-moving lower voice (tenor)
  • Expanded the harmonic possibilities and expressive range of polyphonic composition

Melismatic organum

  • Characterized by highly ornate upper voices set against a sustained lower voice
  • Lower voice typically held long notes derived from the original chant melody
  • Upper voice(s) featured extensive melismatic passages (multiple notes sung to a single syllable)
  • Created a more florid and elaborate musical texture
  • Exemplified in the Magnus Liber Organi from the Notre Dame school

Notre Dame school

  • Refers to the group of composers and theorists associated with the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris
  • Flourished during the late 12th and early 13th centuries
  • Played a crucial role in the development of polyphonic composition and notation
  • Innovations from this school influenced sacred music throughout Europe

Léonin and Pérotin

  • Léonin (fl. 1150s-1201) considered the first major composer of the Notre Dame school
  • Compiled the Magnus Liber Organi, a collection of two-voice organum settings for the liturgical year
  • Pérotin (fl. c. 1200) expanded on Léonin's work, creating more complex three- and four-voice compositions
  • Pérotin's innovations included the use of rhythmic modes and the development of the motet form
  • Both composers significantly advanced the techniques of discant and melismatic organum

Development of discant style

  • Discant style featured note-against-note counterpoint in the upper voices
  • Contrasted with the more florid, melismatic style of earlier organum
  • Employed rhythmic modes to organize the musical pulse and create rhythmic patterns
  • Allowed for greater textual clarity in polyphonic settings
  • Influenced the development of the motet and other polyphonic genres

Ars antiqua period

  • Refers to the period of musical style and theory from c. 1170 to 1310
  • Characterized by the codification of rhythmic notation and the emergence of new polyphonic forms
  • Centered primarily in France but influenced musical practices throughout Western Europe
  • Laid the groundwork for the more complex styles of the subsequent Ars nova period

Conductus vs motet

  • Conductus
    • Non-liturgical Latin song for one or more voices
    • All voices typically moved together syllabically
    • Often used as processional music or to introduce other pieces
    • Texts were newly composed, not based on pre-existing chant
  • Motet
    • Polyphonic composition with different texts in each voice
    • Usually based on a pre-existing chant melody in the lowest voice (tenor)
    • Upper voices featured more rapid movement and independent texts
    • Evolved into both sacred and secular forms

Rhythmic innovations

  • Introduction of rhythmic modes systematized the organization of musical time
  • Six rhythmic modes based on poetic meters provided a framework for notating rhythm
  • Development of ligatures to represent groups of notes within a single rhythmic unit
  • Emergence of ternary division of time, influenced by the concept of perfection in medieval theology
  • These innovations allowed for more precise notation and performance of complex rhythmic structures

Notational advancements

  • Notational developments during this period were crucial for the evolution of polyphonic music
  • Enabled more accurate preservation and transmission of complex musical ideas
  • Facilitated the composition and performance of increasingly sophisticated polyphonic works
  • System of rhythmic notation developed in the late 12th century
  • Based on six rhythmic modes derived from poetic meters (trochaic, iambic, dactylic, etc.)
  • Used specific note shapes and ligatures to indicate rhythmic patterns
  • Allowed for the notation of more complex rhythmic relationships between voices
  • Limited in its ability to represent irregular rhythms or mixed meter

Mensural notation

  • Evolved from modal notation in the late 13th century
  • Introduced individual note shapes to indicate specific durations (longa, brevis, semibrevis)
  • Allowed for both binary and ternary divisions of rhythmic units
  • Enabled more precise and flexible notation of rhythm and meter
  • Formed the basis for the development of white mensural notation in the Renaissance

Compositional techniques

  • Early polyphonic composers developed various techniques to create coherent multi-voiced works
  • These techniques laid the foundation for more complex contrapuntal practices in later periods
  • Influenced the development of both sacred and secular polyphonic genres

Cantus firmus practice

  • Use of a pre-existing melody, often from Gregorian chant, as the structural basis for a polyphonic composition
  • Cantus firmus typically placed in the tenor (lowest) voice
  • Upper voices composed to complement and elaborate on the cantus firmus
  • Technique used in various genres, including organum, motet, and early Mass settings
  • Allowed composers to create new works while maintaining connections to traditional repertoire

Imitation and canon

  • Imitation involves one voice repeating a melodic phrase introduced by another voice
  • Canon, a strict form of imitation, features exact repetition of a melody at a fixed time interval
  • Early use of imitation found in rounds and catch-like structures
  • More complex imitative techniques developed in motets and other polyphonic forms
  • Laid the groundwork for the pervasive use of imitation in Renaissance polyphony

Regional styles

  • Early polyphony developed distinct regional characteristics across Europe
  • Reflected local musical traditions, liturgical practices, and cultural influences
  • Contributed to the rich diversity of medieval polyphonic repertoire

French vs English polyphony

  • French polyphony
    • Characterized by intricate rhythmic structures and complex textures
    • Emphasized the use of isorhythm in motets and other forms
    • Influenced by the innovations of the Notre Dame school and Ars nova
  • English polyphony
    • Featured a preference for thirds and sixths in harmonic structures
    • Developed the "English discant" style with parallel motion in thirds and sixths
    • Gymel technique involved dividing a single line into two parallel parts

Italian lauda tradition

  • Laude were devotional songs in the vernacular Italian language
  • Originally monophonic but developed polyphonic settings in the 13th and 14th centuries
  • Often performed by lay confraternities outside of official liturgical contexts
  • Influenced the development of early Italian secular polyphony
  • Characterized by simpler textures and more accessible melodic styles compared to French polyphony

Secular polyphony

  • Development of secular polyphonic music paralleled that of sacred polyphony
  • Reflected the growing importance of courtly and urban musical cultures
  • Contributed to the evolution of vernacular song traditions and instrumental music

Troubadour and trouvère songs

  • Troubadours (southern France) and trouvères (northern France) composed monophonic songs in vernacular languages
  • Some songs were adapted into simple polyphonic settings
  • Polyphonic arrangements often featured added voices moving in parallel motion
  • Influenced the development of secular polyphonic forms like the chanson
  • Repertoire included various poetic and musical forms (virelai, ballade, rondeau)

Early madrigals

  • 14th-century Italian secular polyphonic song form
  • Typically set for two or three voices with Italian texts
  • Often featured contrasting sections of melismatic and syllabic text setting
  • Incorporated both imitative and non-imitative contrapuntal techniques
  • Laid the groundwork for the more complex madrigals of the Renaissance period

Theoretical foundations

  • Medieval music theorists played a crucial role in codifying and explaining polyphonic practices
  • Theoretical writings provided a framework for understanding consonance, dissonance, and voice leading
  • Influenced compositional practices and the teaching of music in cathedral schools and universities

Treatises on polyphony

  • "Musica Enchiriadis" (c. 900) provided early descriptions of organum techniques
  • Guido of Arezzo's "Micrologus" (c. 1026) discussed various aspects of polyphonic composition
  • Johannes de Garlandia's "De mensurabili musica" (c. 1240) explained rhythmic modes and notation
  • Franco of Cologne's "Ars cantus mensurabilis" (c. 1280) further developed mensural notation
  • These treatises codified existing practices and influenced future developments in polyphonic composition

Concepts of consonance vs dissonance

  • Medieval theorists classified intervals as perfect consonances, imperfect consonances, or dissonances
  • Perfect consonances (unison, octave, fifth) were considered the most stable
  • Imperfect consonances (thirds, sixths) gained acceptance over time
  • Dissonances (seconds, sevenths, tritone) required careful treatment and resolution
  • Concepts of consonance and dissonance influenced voice-leading practices and harmonic progressions
  • Gradual acceptance of thirds and sixths as consonances shaped the development of tonal harmony

Transition to Renaissance

  • The late medieval period saw significant changes in musical style and theory
  • These developments laid the groundwork for the flourishing of polyphonic music in the Renaissance

Ars nova innovations

  • Term "Ars nova" coined by Philippe de Vitry, referring to new compositional and notational techniques
  • Introduction of duple meter alongside the established triple meter
  • Development of isorhythm, a technique using repeated rhythmic and melodic patterns
  • Expansion of available note values, allowing for more rhythmic complexity
  • Innovations in France paralleled by the Italian Trecento style

Influence on later styles

  • Ars nova techniques paved the way for the rhythmic flexibility of Renaissance polyphony
  • Isorhythm influenced structural approaches in both sacred and secular music
  • Expanded use of imitation led to the pervasive imitative counterpoint of the 15th and 16th centuries
  • Notational advancements enabled the composition and transmission of increasingly complex works
  • Secular forms like the formes fixes influenced the development of Renaissance chanson and madrigal


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AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
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