4.2 Nation-building in Turkey, Iran, and the Arab states
4 min read•august 9, 2024
The interwar period saw major efforts in Turkey, Iran, and Arab states. Leaders like Atatürk and Reza Shah pushed modernization, , and to forge new national identities and strengthen their countries against foreign influence.
These reforms reshaped societies but also sparked tensions. While some embraced Westernization and , others resisted changes to traditional religious and cultural practices. This period laid foundations for modern Middle Eastern states and ongoing debates about identity and governance.
Turkey and Kemalism
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's Rise and Reforms
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- emerged as a national hero after leading Turkish forces in the War of Independence
- Atatürk became the first president of the newly established Republic of Turkey in 1923
- Implemented sweeping reforms to modernize Turkey includes abolishing the Ottoman sultanate and caliphate
- Introduced a new constitution in 1924 establishing Turkey as a secular republic
- Adopted Western-style legal codes replacing Islamic law
- Launched literacy campaigns and reformed the education system
Principles of Kemalism and Secularization
- consists of six main principles guiding Turkey's development (, nationalism, , , secularism, and )
- Republicanism emphasized democratic governance and popular sovereignty
- Nationalism promoted Turkish identity and unity over religious or ethnic divisions
- Populism stressed equality among citizens and the importance of social justice
- Statism advocated for state-led economic development and industrialization
- Secularism separated religion from state affairs and education
- Reformism encouraged continuous modernization and adaptation to global changes
- Secularization efforts included abolishing religious courts, closing religious schools, and banning traditional Islamic dress in public institutions
- Latin alphabet replaced the Arabic script to increase literacy and Westernize Turkish culture
- Women's rights expanded granting suffrage and encouraging participation in public life
Iran and the Pahlavis
Reza Shah Pahlavi's Modernization Efforts
- rose to power in 1925 after overthrowing the Qajar dynasty
- Launched ambitious modernization programs inspired by Atatürk's reforms in Turkey
- Centralized government authority and weakened the power of tribal leaders and clergy
- Developed modern infrastructure includes building roads, railways, and factories
- Established a national education system and founded the University of Tehran in 1935
- Implemented dress code reforms banning traditional clothing like the veil for women
- Promoted and pre-Islamic cultural heritage to forge a distinct national identity
- Pursued foreign policy of neutrality and reduced British and Russian influence in Iran
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the White Revolution
- Mohammad Reza Pahlavi succeeded his father as Shah in 1941 after Allied occupation of Iran
- Launched the in 1963 a series of reforms aimed at modernizing Iran
- redistributed large landholdings to peasants and reduced the power of traditional elites
- Nationalization of forests and pastureland to improve natural resource management
- Privatization of state-owned enterprises to encourage economic growth and foreign investment
- Women's suffrage granted and efforts made to increase women's participation in society
- Literacy corps established to improve education in rural areas
- Health corps created to provide basic healthcare services in underserved regions
- Modernization efforts faced opposition from religious conservatives and leftist groups
- Growing discontent with the Shah's authoritarian rule and Western influence led to the in 1979
Arab States and Dynasties
Hashemite Rule in Iraq and Jordan
- of Iraq became king in 1921 under British mandate established constitutional monarchy
- Faisal worked to balance competing interests of Sunni, Shia, and Kurdish populations
- Negotiated Iraq's independence from Britain achieved in 1932
- ruled Iraq until 1958 when overthrown by military coup
- Abdullah I established Hashemite rule in Transjordan (later Jordan) in 1921
- Jordan gained independence from Britain in 1946 under Hashemite monarchy
- Hashemites continue to rule Jordan today playing a key role in regional politics
Rise of Saudi Arabia and Wahhabism
- (Abdul Aziz ibn Saud) unified Arabian Peninsula through military campaigns and alliances
- Established Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932 combining Najd and Hejaz regions
- Formed alliance with Wahhabi religious movement providing ideological basis for Saudi rule
- Discovery of oil in 1938 transformed Saudi Arabia's economy and global influence
- Ibn Saud balanced modernization efforts with conservative religious traditions
- Developed basic state institutions while maintaining traditional tribal power structures
- Saudi monarchy became a key U.S. ally in the Middle East during the Cold War
Pan-Arabism and Its Impact
- emerged as a political ideology promoting unity among Arab nations
- of Egypt became a leading figure in the pan-Arab movement
- of 1956 boosted Nasser's prestige and pan-Arab sentiment across the region
- formed between Egypt and Syria in 1958 (dissolved in 1961)
- established in 1945 to promote cooperation among Arab states
- Pan-Arabism influenced anti-colonial movements and Arab nationalism in various countries
- Decline of pan-Arabism after the 1967 Six-Day War led to rise of Islamist movements
Key Terms to Review (35)
Arab League: The Arab League is a regional organization founded in 1945 to promote political, economic, cultural, and social cooperation among its member states, primarily in the Arab world. The League aims to unify Arab nations and coordinate their responses to common challenges, including conflicts, economic issues, and cultural ties. Its establishment and actions have significantly influenced regional politics, especially during critical events such as the Suez Crisis and the Arab-Israeli conflicts.
Arab Spring: The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government protests and uprisings that swept across the Arab world beginning in late 2010. It aimed to challenge authoritarian regimes, promote democratic reforms, and address social and economic grievances, significantly impacting the political landscape in the region.
Arabization: Arabization is the process of promoting the Arabic language and culture among non-Arab populations, often through political, social, and economic means. This process has been a significant factor in nation-building in the Middle East, as it aims to foster a unified national identity based on Arab culture and language, impacting states like Turkey, Iran, and various Arab nations in their efforts to solidify their national identities and political cohesion.
Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the concentration of power in a single authority or a small group, often suppressing political dissent and limiting individual freedoms. In this system, rulers maintain control through various means, such as censorship, propaganda, and the use of force. Authoritarianism plays a critical role in shaping state structures and societal dynamics, particularly in relation to governance and national identity.
Cultural Revival: Cultural revival refers to the resurgence of interest in traditional culture, arts, literature, and heritage within a society, often as a response to modernization or external influences. This movement aims to reclaim national identity and heritage, fostering a sense of pride and unity among the people. In the context of nation-building, cultural revival plays a crucial role in redefining and reinforcing national identities in Turkey, Iran, and Arab states during times of political change and social transformation.
Democratization: Democratization is the process through which a country transitions from an authoritarian regime to a more democratic political system, characterized by free and fair elections, the protection of civil liberties, and the rule of law. This transformation often involves political reforms that aim to increase citizen participation, enhance accountability, and create institutions that support democracy. In the context of political and economic reform and nation-building efforts in the Middle East, democratization reflects both the challenges and aspirations faced by countries attempting to embrace democratic governance while addressing historical legacies and contemporary realities.
Educational reform: Educational reform refers to the systematic changes and improvements made to the education systems of a country, aimed at enhancing the quality and accessibility of education. In the context of nation-building, educational reform plays a crucial role in shaping national identity, modernizing society, and promoting economic development. These reforms often include the establishment of new curricula, the expansion of literacy programs, and the creation of institutions that support scientific and technical education.
Ethnic nationalism: Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes the shared heritage, culture, language, and ethnicity of a specific group as the basis for national identity and political sovereignty. This concept often arises in multi-ethnic states where different ethnic groups seek self-determination and recognition, leading to tensions in nation-building efforts, particularly in regions with diverse populations.
Faisal I: Faisal I was the King of Iraq from 1921 until his death in 1933 and played a pivotal role in the post-World War I Arab landscape. He was a key figure in the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule and later became instrumental in the establishment of the modern Iraqi state under the British mandate system, which shaped the political landscape of the region.
Gamal Abdel Nasser: Gamal Abdel Nasser was the second President of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death in 1970. He is best known for his role in promoting Arab nationalism, leading significant reforms in Egypt, and his pivotal involvement in events like the Suez Crisis and the Six-Day War.
Hashemite Dynasty: The Hashemite Dynasty is a royal family that claims descent from the Prophet Muhammad, establishing its rule in the early 20th century in the Arab world, particularly in Jordan and Iraq. This dynasty played a significant role in the growth of Arab nationalism and the formation of modern Arab states after World War I, especially through its leadership during the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule.
Ibn Saud: Ibn Saud, also known as Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, was the founder of modern Saudi Arabia and the first king of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, reigning from 1932 until his death in 1953. His unification of the various tribes and regions of the Arabian Peninsula played a crucial role in the nation-building efforts in the region, impacting both Saudi Arabia and its neighbors.
Iranian Revolution: The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, occurred in 1979 and resulted in the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy, led by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. This significant political shift transformed Iran's governance and set a precedent for political Islam in the region, impacting nation-building efforts and globalization in Middle Eastern societies.
Kemalism: Kemalism is the founding ideology of modern Turkey, developed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, emphasizing secularism, nationalism, modernization, and state control over various aspects of life. It aimed to transform Turkey into a modern, secular nation-state, breaking away from the Ottoman imperial past and addressing the needs of a diverse population.
Kurdish conflict: The Kurdish conflict refers to the ongoing struggle of the Kurdish people for autonomy, cultural rights, and recognition within the nations of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. This conflict has historical roots in the suppression of Kurdish identity and language by these states, leading to movements for independence and self-governance, impacting nation-building efforts and regional stability.
Land reform: Land reform refers to the process of redistributing land ownership and management to achieve more equitable access to land among the population. This often involves the state intervening to break up large estates, distribute land to peasants, and implement policies aimed at improving agricultural productivity. In the context of nation-building in Turkey, Iran, and the Arab states, land reform became a key strategy for addressing social inequalities, fostering economic development, and consolidating political power.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey, serving from 1923 until his death in 1938. He is known for implementing extensive reforms aimed at modernizing Turkey and promoting nationalism, fundamentally changing Turkish society, politics, and culture after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
Nation-building: Nation-building is the process of constructing or structuring a national identity, often through the development of shared institutions, governance, and cultural narratives. This term is closely tied to the formation of a cohesive state, particularly in contexts where diverse ethnic, religious, or cultural groups exist. In the context of Turkey, Iran, and the Arab states, nation-building efforts have focused on creating a unified national identity while grappling with historical legacies and regional dynamics.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often leading to the desire for national independence or self-governance. It plays a significant role in shaping modern political landscapes and has influenced movements for independence, reform, and identity across the Middle East, often as a response to foreign domination and internal dynamics.
Pan-Arabism: Pan-Arabism is a political and cultural ideology that promotes the unity of Arab nations and people, emphasizing shared language, culture, and historical ties. This movement emerged as a response to colonialism and foreign domination, advocating for the establishment of a unified Arab identity across the Middle East and North Africa.
Persian Nationalism: Persian nationalism is a political and cultural movement that emphasizes the identity, heritage, and unity of the Persian people, primarily in Iran. This ideology emerged in response to foreign domination, particularly during the 19th and 20th centuries, advocating for sovereignty, cultural revival, and national pride among Persians, while often contrasting with growing Arab and Turkish nationalist movements in the region.
Populism: Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting them against an elite or established authority. It emphasizes a direct connection between leaders and the masses, claiming to speak for the common people while addressing their grievances and aspirations. In the context of nation-building, populism can play a crucial role in mobilizing public support for political changes and reforms in countries facing social and economic challenges.
Reformism: Reformism refers to a movement aimed at improving and modernizing political, social, and economic structures within a state without resorting to radical changes or revolutions. In the context of nation-building in Turkey, Iran, and the Arab states, reformism played a critical role in addressing the challenges posed by modernization, nationalism, and colonial influences while trying to balance traditional values with new ideas.
Republicanism: Republicanism is a political ideology centered around the concept of a republic, where the authority of the government is derived from the people's consent and representatives are elected to serve the public good. This ideology emphasizes civic participation, individual rights, and the importance of a constitution or legal framework to safeguard democracy and limit governmental power. In the context of nation-building in Turkey, Iran, and Arab states, republicanism played a significant role in shaping political structures and guiding movements towards independence and self-determination.
Reza Shah Pahlavi: Reza Shah Pahlavi was the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran, ruling from 1925 to 1941. His reign marked a significant transformation in Iranian society as he implemented modernizing reforms aimed at nation-building and promoted a strong sense of Iranian nationalism while suppressing dissent and opposition.
Secularism: Secularism is the principle of separating religion from political, social, and educational institutions, promoting a neutral public sphere where multiple beliefs can coexist without favoring any single one. This concept is vital in the context of nation-building, as it influences how governments and societies structure their identities, laws, and policies while accommodating diverse populations with varying religious beliefs.
Secularization: Secularization refers to the process by which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their social significance and influence over time. This process often involves the separation of religion from political and public life, leading to a more secular society where religion plays a less central role in governance and daily affairs. In the context of major historical transformations, secularization reflects broader changes in state and society, particularly during periods of modernization and nation-building.
Statism: Statism is a political system in which the state has significant centralized control over social and economic affairs, often prioritizing national interests above individual liberties. In the context of nation-building, statism emphasizes the role of the state in shaping national identity and guiding development, particularly in countries undergoing significant political and social transformations.
Suez Crisis: The Suez Crisis, also known as the Second Arab-Israeli War, occurred in 1956 when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to a military intervention by Israel, followed by the United Kingdom and France. This event marked a significant moment in Middle Eastern history, influencing regional politics, the relationship between superpowers, and the process of decolonization in the region.
Treaty of Sèvres: The Treaty of Sèvres was a peace agreement signed in 1920 between the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire, marking the formal end of World War I for the Ottomans. This treaty aimed to dismantle the empire, redistributing its territories and establishing new nation-states, which had significant implications for the political landscape of the Middle East, influencing the nation-building efforts in Turkey, Iran, and various Arab states.
Turkification: Turkification refers to the process aimed at promoting Turkish culture, language, and identity within the multi-ethnic territories of the former Ottoman Empire, particularly during the early 20th century. This movement emerged as a response to the challenges of nationalism and the desire for a cohesive national identity in Turkey, often at the expense of other ethnic groups. The process included measures such as the imposition of the Turkish language in schools and government, as well as cultural policies that marginalized non-Turkish communities.
United Arab Republic: The United Arab Republic (UAR) was a political union formed in 1958 between Egypt and Syria, aiming to promote Arab unity and socialism. It represented a significant moment in the post-colonial era, where the desire for national identity and independence influenced regional politics, reflecting broader trends in nation-building across the Arab states during the mid-20th century.
Wahhabism: Wahhabism is a conservative and fundamentalist interpretation of Sunni Islam founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century in what is now Saudi Arabia. It emphasizes a strict adherence to the Quran and Hadith, rejecting practices considered innovations or polytheistic. This movement has played a significant role in shaping political Islam, sectarian conflicts, and nation-building efforts in the Middle East.
White Revolution: The White Revolution was a series of sweeping reforms launched in Iran in 1963 under the leadership of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, aimed at modernizing the country's economy and promoting social change. This initiative sought to transform Iran into a modern state by implementing land reforms, nationalization of key industries, and promoting literacy and healthcare. The reforms significantly influenced the political landscape of Iran and set the stage for tensions that contributed to the Iranian Revolution.
Young Turk Revolution: The Young Turk Revolution, which began in 1908, was a pivotal movement aimed at restoring the constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire, overthrowing the absolute rule of Sultan Abdulhamid II. This revolution marked a significant turning point in Ottoman history, as it initiated a series of reforms and modernization efforts that would influence the empire's political landscape and eventually contribute to its decline. The revolution also laid the groundwork for the rise of nationalism and nation-building efforts that emerged in Turkey and other regions post-empire.