4.3 The growth of Arab, Turkish, and Iranian nationalism
4 min read•august 9, 2024
The interwar period saw the rise of nationalism across the Middle East. Arab, Turkish, and Iranian leaders sought to build modern nation-states, often clashing with colonial powers and traditional structures. This era laid the groundwork for independent countries and shaped regional politics for decades to come.
Nationalist movements took different forms in each country. In Turkey, Atatürk's reforms westernized society. Iran's Pahlavi dynasty pushed rapid modernization. grew from anti-colonial sentiment, leading to new states and ideologies like and Islamism.
Rise of Arab Nationalism
Pan-Arabism and the Arab Revolt
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- Pan-Arabism emerged as a political ideology promoting unity among Arabic-speaking nations
- Emphasized shared cultural, linguistic, and historical ties among Arab peoples
- (1916-1918) marked a significant milestone in Arab nationalism
- Led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca against Ottoman rule
- Supported by British forces, including T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia)
- Revolt aimed to establish an independent Arab state in the Middle East
- Resulted in the overthrow of Ottoman control in many Arab territories
Post-World War I Agreements and Mandates
- Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) secretly divided Ottoman territories between Britain and France
- Created artificial borders that disregarded ethnic and religious demographics
- Led to long-lasting conflicts and instability in the region
- (1917) expressed British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine
- Contradicted earlier promises made to Arab leaders
- Laid the foundation for future Arab-Israeli conflicts
- Mandate system established by the League of Nations after World War I
- Placed former Ottoman territories under British and French administration
- Included mandates for Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine
- played a crucial role in Arab nationalism
- Originally ruled Hejaz region of Arabia
- Members became rulers of Iraq and Jordan under British influence
Turkish Nationalism and Reforms
Kemalism and the Turkish War of Independence
- emerged as the founding ideology of modern Turkey
- Developed by , the first president of Turkey
- Based on six principles: republicanism, nationalism, populism, statism, secularism, and reformism
- (1919-1923) followed the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I
- Led by Mustafa Kemal against occupying Allied powers
- Resulted in the establishment of the in 1923
- Abolished the Ottoman Sultanate and Caliphate, ending centuries of imperial rule
Atatürk's Reforms and Modernization
- Atatürk implemented wide-ranging reforms to modernize Turkey
- Secularization of the state separated religion from government institutions
- Abolished religious courts and schools
- Introduced a secular legal system based on European models
- Linguistic reforms replaced the Arabic script with Latin alphabet for Turkish language
- Educational reforms expanded access to schooling and promoted literacy
- Women's rights improved through legal and social changes
- Granted women the right to vote and hold public office
- Banned polygamy and encouraged women's participation in public life
- Economic reforms focused on industrialization and state-led development
- Cultural reforms aimed to westernize Turkish society
- Adopted European-style clothing and calendar
- Encouraged Western art, music, and literature
Iranian Nationalism and Modernization
Reza Shah Pahlavi's Reign and Reforms
- came to power in 1925, founding the Pahlavi dynasty
- Implemented centralization policies to strengthen the Iranian state
- Expanded bureaucracy and modernized the military
- Reduced tribal autonomy and power of religious leaders
- Pursued rapid modernization and westernization of Iran
- Developed infrastructure (roads, railways, and factories)
- Established a national education system
- Promoted and pre-Islamic Iranian identity
- Tensions arose between modernization efforts and traditional Islamic values
- Banned traditional clothing, including the veil for women
- Restricted religious practices and institutions
The White Revolution and Its Impact
- initiated by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Reza Shah's son) in 1963
- Aimed to transform Iran into a modern, industrialized nation
- Key reforms included:
- Land reform redistributed agricultural land to peasants
- Women's suffrage granted voting rights to women
- Nationalization of forests and pastures
- Profit-sharing schemes for industrial workers
- Literacy corps to combat illiteracy in rural areas
- Mixed results and unintended consequences
- Weakened traditional power structures (landlords and clergy)
- Increased urbanization and social mobility
- Widened gap between modernizing elites and traditional segments of society
- Contributed to growing opposition that eventually led to the 1979 Iranian Revolution
Political Movements and Ideologies
Nationalist Parties and Movements
- emerged as a prominent nationalist movement in Egypt
- Founded by Saad Zaghlul in 1919
- Advocated for Egyptian independence from British rule
- Played a significant role in Egyptian politics until the 1952 revolution
- developed as a pan-Arab, socialist movement
- Founded in Syria in 1940s by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar
- Promoted Arab unity, socialism, and secularism
- Gained power in Syria and Iraq, leading to authoritarian regimes
Islamist and Socialist Ideologies
- established in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna in 1928
- Advocated for a return to Islamic values and practices
- Opposed Western influence and secular governments
- Spread to other Arab countries, becoming a significant political force
- Nasser and emerged in Egypt after the 1952 revolution
- promoted a blend of Arab nationalism and socialism
- Nationalized the Suez Canal and implemented land reforms
- Pursued pan-Arab policies, including the short-lived United Arab Republic with Syria
- Arab socialism influenced other Middle Eastern countries
- Inspired similar movements in Syria, Iraq, and Libya
- Emphasized state-led economic development and social welfare programs
Key Terms to Review (21)
Anatolia: Anatolia, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia that forms the majority of modern-day Turkey. This region has been historically significant as a crossroads of various civilizations and cultures, influencing the growth of nationalism among Arabs, Turks, and Iranians, and highlighting its geographic importance in connecting Europe and Asia.
Arab Nationalism: Arab nationalism is a political and cultural movement advocating for the unity and independence of Arab countries and peoples, promoting a shared identity based on common language, culture, and history. This movement emerged as a response to colonialism and imperialism, seeking to unite Arabs against foreign domination and foster national pride.
Arab Revolt: The Arab Revolt was a military uprising during World War I, initiated in 1916, aimed at gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire and establishing Arab self-determination. This revolt was driven by rising Arab nationalism and discontent with Ottoman rule, particularly due to the empire's suppression of Arab identity and autonomy. The revolt played a crucial role in shaping the future political landscape of the Middle East and laid the groundwork for post-war negotiations and agreements concerning Arab lands.
Arab Socialism: Arab Socialism is a political and economic ideology that combines elements of socialism with Arab nationalism, advocating for the redistribution of wealth and the establishment of social justice in Arab societies. This movement gained traction in the mid-20th century as a response to colonialism and imperialism, promoting unity among Arab nations while emphasizing the need for socio-economic reforms to address poverty and inequality.
Arabian Peninsula: The Arabian Peninsula is a large landmass in Southwest Asia, bordered by the Persian Gulf to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and the Arabian Sea to the south. It is home to several countries, including Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar. This region is significant for its historical trade routes, vast oil reserves, and as the birthplace of Islam, which plays a crucial role in shaping national identities and movements across Arab, Turkish, and Iranian populations.
Ba'ath Party: The Ba'ath Party is a political party that promotes Arab nationalism and socialism, founded in the early 20th century. Its ideology emphasizes the unity of the Arab world and advocates for social justice, often associating itself with secularism. The Ba'ath Party has played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of several Middle Eastern countries, particularly Iraq and Syria, while influencing the broader context of Arab nationalism, authoritarian governance, and post-colonial independence movements.
Balfour Declaration: The Balfour Declaration was a statement issued by the British government in 1917 expressing support for the establishment of a 'national home for the Jewish people' in Palestine. This declaration played a critical role in shaping the modern Jewish-Arab conflict and was seen as a significant step in the Zionist movement, deeply intertwining with the growth of nationalism in the region.
Gamal Abdel Nasser: Gamal Abdel Nasser was the second President of Egypt, serving from 1956 until his death in 1970. He is best known for his role in promoting Arab nationalism, leading significant reforms in Egypt, and his pivotal involvement in events like the Suez Crisis and the Six-Day War.
Hashemite Dynasty: The Hashemite Dynasty is a royal family that claims descent from the Prophet Muhammad, establishing its rule in the early 20th century in the Arab world, particularly in Jordan and Iraq. This dynasty played a significant role in the growth of Arab nationalism and the formation of modern Arab states after World War I, especially through its leadership during the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule.
Kemalism: Kemalism is the founding ideology of modern Turkey, developed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, emphasizing secularism, nationalism, modernization, and state control over various aspects of life. It aimed to transform Turkey into a modern, secular nation-state, breaking away from the Ottoman imperial past and addressing the needs of a diverse population.
Muslim Brotherhood: The Muslim Brotherhood is an Islamist organization founded in Egypt in 1928, aiming to promote Islamic values and implement Sharia law in governance. It has played a pivotal role in the rise of political Islam in the Arab world, influencing various nationalist movements and shaping responses to authoritarian regimes, particularly during significant social and political upheavals.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey, serving from 1923 until his death in 1938. He is known for implementing extensive reforms aimed at modernizing Turkey and promoting nationalism, fundamentally changing Turkish society, politics, and culture after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
Pan-Arabism: Pan-Arabism is a political and cultural ideology that promotes the unity of Arab nations and people, emphasizing shared language, culture, and historical ties. This movement emerged as a response to colonialism and foreign domination, advocating for the establishment of a unified Arab identity across the Middle East and North Africa.
Persia/Iran: Persia, known today as Iran, refers to a historical region and modern nation-state in Western Asia with a rich cultural heritage that dates back thousands of years. The term Persia was used in the West until 1935, when the government requested that the country be referred to as Iran, which means 'Land of the Aryans.' Understanding this transformation is crucial in the context of growing national identities among various ethnic groups in the region, especially as Arab, Turkish, and Iranian nationalism began to take shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Persian Nationalism: Persian nationalism is a political and cultural movement that emphasizes the identity, heritage, and unity of the Persian people, primarily in Iran. This ideology emerged in response to foreign domination, particularly during the 19th and 20th centuries, advocating for sovereignty, cultural revival, and national pride among Persians, while often contrasting with growing Arab and Turkish nationalist movements in the region.
Republic of Turkey: The Republic of Turkey is a sovereign nation established in 1923, following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, and it marked the transition from an imperial system to a modern nation-state. This transformation was heavily influenced by nationalist movements among various ethnic groups, especially Turkish nationalism, which sought to unify diverse populations under a singular national identity and sovereignty.
Reza Shah Pahlavi: Reza Shah Pahlavi was the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran, ruling from 1925 to 1941. His reign marked a significant transformation in Iranian society as he implemented modernizing reforms aimed at nation-building and promoted a strong sense of Iranian nationalism while suppressing dissent and opposition.
Turkish Nationalism: Turkish nationalism is an ideological movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for the sovereignty and unity of the Turkish people, often centered around the promotion of a distinct Turkish identity. This movement gained momentum as a response to the decline of the Ottoman Empire, emphasizing cultural, linguistic, and historical elements unique to Turkey, while also seeking to forge a modern nation-state out of the remnants of the empire.
Turkish War of Independence: The Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923) was a military conflict in which Turkish nationalists fought against occupying Allied powers and the Ottoman government to establish an independent Turkish state. This war played a crucial role in the rise of Turkish nationalism, leading to the foundation of modern Turkey and the end of the Ottoman Empire's influence in the region.
Wafd Party: The Wafd Party was a nationalist political party in Egypt founded in 1919, primarily advocating for Egyptian independence from British rule. It became the leading voice of nationalist sentiments and played a pivotal role in shaping modern Egyptian politics, especially during the interwar period, as it pushed for greater self-governance and democratic reforms.
White Revolution: The White Revolution was a series of sweeping reforms launched in Iran in 1963 under the leadership of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, aimed at modernizing the country's economy and promoting social change. This initiative sought to transform Iran into a modern state by implementing land reforms, nationalization of key industries, and promoting literacy and healthcare. The reforms significantly influenced the political landscape of Iran and set the stage for tensions that contributed to the Iranian Revolution.