4.5 Great Migration
12 min read•august 21, 2024
The reshaped Black women's lives in America from 1916 to 1970. As millions moved from the rural South to urban areas in the North, Midwest, and West, they faced new opportunities and challenges.
This massive relocation transformed social, economic, and cultural landscapes for Black women. It opened doors to industrial jobs, political participation, and community leadership while also bringing struggles with housing discrimination and urban poverty.
Origins of Great Migration
- Great Migration profoundly shaped the experiences of Black women in America, transforming their social, economic, and cultural landscapes
- Movement of approximately 6 million African Americans from rural Southern states to urban areas in the North, Midwest, and West between 1916 and 1970
- Resulted in significant demographic shifts, altering the racial composition of many Northern cities and creating new opportunities for Black women
Causes of northern migration
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- Widespread racial discrimination and violence in the South pushed Black Americans to seek better lives elsewhere
- Lack of economic opportunities in the agrarian South contrasted with industrial job prospects in the North
- Desire for political freedom and voting rights unavailable in the Jim Crow South
- Natural disasters like boll weevil infestation devastated Southern agriculture, displacing many Black farmers
Push factors in South
- Oppressive enforced racial and limited civil rights
- Racial violence including lynchings and intimidation tactics by groups (Ku Klux Klan)
- Economic hardships from sharecropping system and limited job opportunities
- Lack of educational opportunities for Black children and adults
- Disenfranchisement through voting restrictions (literacy tests, poll taxes)
Pull factors in North
- Industrial job opportunities in factories, meatpacking plants, and steel mills
- Higher wages compared to Southern agricultural work
- Relative political freedom and ability to vote in many Northern states
- Better educational opportunities for children and adults
- Established Black communities in cities (, New York, ) provided support networks
- Active recruitment by Northern labor agents and Black-owned newspapers ()
Timeline and phases
- Great Migration significantly impacted the role and status of Black women in American society over several decades
- Movement occurred in two distinct phases, each with unique characteristics and drivers
- Timespan of migration coincided with major historical events shaping Black women's experiences (World Wars, Great Depression, Civil Rights Movement)
First Great Migration
- Occurred from 1916 to 1940, marking the initial large-scale movement of Black Americans northward
- Sparked by labor shortages in Northern industries during World War I
- Approximately 1.6 million Black people migrated during this period
- Concentrated primarily in Northeastern and Midwestern industrial cities (New York, Chicago, Detroit)
- Slowed during the Great Depression but picked up again in the late 1930s
Second Great Migration
- Took place from 1940 to 1970, involving a larger number of migrants
- Driven by increased industrial production during and after World War II
- Approximately 5 million Black people relocated during this phase
- Expanded to include Western cities as destinations (, , )
- Characterized by more diverse occupational opportunities for Black women
Key dates and milestones
- 1916: Start of the Great Migration, coinciding with World War I labor demands
- 1919: "" race riots in Northern cities highlighted tensions from demographic changes
- 1930s: New Deal programs provided some economic relief but often discriminated against Black workers
- 1941-1945: World War II accelerated migration and opened new job opportunities for Black women
- 1954: decision challenged segregation, influencing
- 1964: passed, marking a turning point in legal protections for Black Americans
- 1970: Generally considered the end of the Great Migration, though movement patterns continued
Demographics of migrants
- Great Migration altered the demographic landscape of both Southern and Northern states
- Composition of migrants evolved over time, reflecting changing social and economic conditions
- Understanding migrant demographics crucial for analyzing impact on Black women's experiences and opportunities
Age and gender distribution
- Initially skewed towards young, single men seeking industrial work
- Gradually shifted to include more women and families as migration patterns stabilized
- By 1970, women slightly outnumbered men among Northern-born Black populations
- Working-age adults (18-45) comprised the majority of migrants
- Children and elderly often followed once families established themselves in new locations
Family structures
- Early migration often involved individuals leaving families behind temporarily
- Chain migration patterns emerged with family members following initial migrants
- Nuclear family units became more common in later stages of migration
- Extended family networks often recreated in Northern cities, providing support systems
- Single-mother households increased due to economic pressures and changing social norms
Educational backgrounds
- Varied widely, ranging from illiterate farmworkers to college-educated professionals
- Generally higher education levels among migrants compared to those who remained in the South
- Many migrants sought better educational opportunities for themselves and their children
- Significant number of teachers and other educated professionals among migrants
- Adult education programs in Northern cities attracted migrants seeking to improve skills
Economic impacts
- Great Migration fundamentally altered the economic landscape for Black women in America
- Shift from primarily agricultural to industrial and service sector employment
- Created new economic opportunities while also presenting challenges and inequalities
Changes in labor markets
- Increased participation of Black women in formal wage labor markets
- Shift from primarily domestic and agricultural work to factory and service industry jobs
- Emergence of Black women in previously male-dominated industrial sectors during wartime
- Persistent wage gaps and occupational segregation compared to white workers
- Development of Black-owned businesses catering to growing urban Black communities
Industrialization and urbanization
- Concentration of Black populations in urban industrial centers (Chicago, Detroit, New York)
- Black women entered manufacturing jobs (textiles, food processing, war industries)
- led to new service sector opportunities (retail, clerical work, healthcare)
- Increased exposure to labor unions and worker organizing efforts
- Challenges of adapting to urban industrial work environments and schedules
Wealth accumulation vs poverty
- Opportunities for higher wages in Northern cities compared to Southern agricultural work
- Some families able to achieve homeownership and build generational wealth
- Persistent racial discrimination limited economic mobility for many
- Development of a Black middle class in Northern cities
- Concentration of poverty in urban "ghettos" due to housing discrimination and job market inequalities
- Economic recessions and deindustrialization in later years disproportionately affected Black communities
Social and cultural effects
- Great Migration profoundly reshaped social and cultural landscapes for Black women in America
- Transition from rural Southern to urban Northern environments brought significant changes
- New forms of community organization and cultural expression emerged in response to migration
Urban vs rural lifestyles
- Shift from agricultural rhythms to industrial work schedules
- Increased access to urban amenities (electricity, indoor plumbing, public transportation)
- Adaptation to apartment living and densely populated neighborhoods
- Greater anonymity and potential for personal reinvention in urban settings
- Exposure to diverse cultures and lifestyles in Northern cities
Community formation in cities
- Development of vibrant Black neighborhoods (Harlem in New York, Bronzeville in Chicago)
- Establishment of Black churches as centers of community life and social support
- Creation of mutual aid societies and social clubs to assist new migrants
- Rise of Black-owned businesses catering to growing urban Black populations
- Formation of civil rights organizations and political groups
Preservation of Southern traditions
- Continuation of Southern foodways and culinary traditions in Northern cities
- Maintenance of religious practices and musical traditions (gospel, blues)
- Use of Southern dialects and linguistic patterns within migrant communities
- Celebration of Southern holidays and customs (Juneteenth, family reunions)
- Transmission of and folklore to younger generations
Black women's roles
- Great Migration significantly altered the social and economic roles of Black women in America
- Expanded opportunities for employment and community leadership
- Challenges of balancing work, family, and community responsibilities in new urban environments
Employment opportunities
- Shift from primarily agricultural and domestic work to broader range of occupations
- Entry into industrial jobs, particularly during wartime labor shortages
- Increased presence in service sector jobs (retail, hospitality, healthcare)
- Gradual access to white-collar positions (teachers, social workers, clerical staff)
- Persistent occupational segregation and discrimination limited advancement in many fields
Domestic work vs factory jobs
- Domestic work remained a significant source of employment for Black women in Northern cities
- Factory jobs offered higher wages and more structured work hours compared to domestic service
- Industrial work provided opportunities for unionization and collective bargaining
- Domestic workers often faced isolation and vulnerability to exploitation
- Some women alternated between domestic and factory work based on economic conditions
Leadership in community organizations
- Black women took on prominent roles in church organizations and mutual aid societies
- Involvement in civil rights organizations (NAACP, Urban League) at local and national levels
- Leadership in labor unions and worker advocacy groups
- Establishment of women's clubs focused on social welfare and community improvement
- Emergence of Black women as political organizers and activists in Northern cities
Housing and segregation
- Housing challenges and racial segregation significantly impacted Black women's experiences during the Great Migration
- Discriminatory practices led to the formation of distinct Black neighborhoods in Northern cities
- Overcrowding and poor living conditions presented ongoing challenges for migrant families
Racial restrictions in housing
- Restrictive covenants prohibited property sales to Black buyers in many white neighborhoods
- Redlining practices by banks limited access to mortgages and home loans for Black families
- Real estate agents engaged in "steering" to maintain racial segregation in housing markets
- Public housing projects often reinforced racial segregation through site selection and occupancy policies
- Fair housing legislation (1968) aimed to address discrimination but enforcement remained challenging
Formation of Black neighborhoods
- Concentration of Black residents in specific urban areas (Harlem, South Side Chicago, North Philadelphia)
- Development of thriving cultural and business districts within Black neighborhoods
- Creation of parallel institutions (churches, schools, social organizations) to serve Black communities
- Neighborhood boundaries often enforced through violence or intimidation by white residents
- Some areas transformed from Jewish or European immigrant enclaves to predominantly Black neighborhoods
Overcrowding and living conditions
- Rapid influx of migrants led to housing shortages in many Northern cities
- Subdivision of single-family homes into multiple units to accommodate more residents
- High rents relative to wages forced many families to take in boarders or share living spaces
- Neglect by absentee landlords resulted in deteriorating housing conditions
- Public health challenges arose from inadequate sanitation and overcrowding
- Community efforts to improve housing conditions through tenant organizing and advocacy
Education and literacy
- Great Migration significantly impacted educational opportunities for Black women and their families
- Access to better-funded schools in the North contrasted with limited options in the segregated South
- Education viewed as key to social mobility and economic advancement for migrants
Access to schools
- Northern public schools generally open to Black students, unlike segregated Southern systems
- Overcrowding in urban schools due to rapid population growth in Black neighborhoods
- De facto segregation in many Northern school districts due to residential patterns
- Gradual integration of some Northern schools, often met with resistance from white communities
- Establishment of community-based educational programs to supplement formal schooling
Adult education programs
- Night schools and literacy classes offered opportunities for adult migrants to improve skills
- Vocational training programs provided pathways to better employment opportunities
- Public libraries in Northern cities served as important educational resources for migrants
- Labor unions and community organizations offered educational programs for workers
- Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) attracted Southern migrants seeking higher education
Impact on future generations
- Increased high school graduation rates among children of migrants compared to Southern counterparts
- Greater access to college education for second and third-generation migrants
- Development of a Black professional class in Northern cities (teachers, lawyers, doctors)
- Intergenerational transfer of educational aspirations and achievements
- Persistent achievement gaps between Black and white students due to systemic inequalities
Political implications
- Great Migration significantly altered the political landscape for Black Americans, particularly women
- Movement from disenfranchisement in the South to potential political participation in the North
- Emergence of Black political power in Northern cities shaped local and national politics
Voting rights in North vs South
- Southern states employed various tactics to disenfranchise Black voters (literacy tests, poll taxes, intimidation)
- Northern states generally allowed Black residents to vote, though some restrictions existed
- Bloc voting by Black communities in Northern cities became influential in local elections
- Gradual increase in Black voter registration and turnout rates in Northern states
- Voting rights remained a key issue, culminating in the Voting Rights Act of 1965
Civic engagement and activism
- Formation of local chapters of national civil rights organizations (NAACP, Urban League) in Northern cities
- Black women took on leadership roles in community organizations and advocacy groups
- Development of grassroots movements addressing issues (housing discrimination, police brutality, education)
- Participation in labor unions and worker rights campaigns
- Emergence of Black newspapers and media outlets as platforms for political discourse
Influence on civil rights movement
- Northern Black communities provided support and resources for Southern civil rights efforts
- Migration experiences informed strategies for challenging segregation and discrimination
- Urban riots in Northern cities (1960s) highlighted persistent racial inequalities
- Black political leaders from Northern cities gained national prominence in civil rights debates
- Pressure from Northern Black voters influenced federal civil rights legislation and policies
Artistic and literary expressions
- Great Migration inspired a flourishing of Black artistic and literary production
- New forms of cultural expression emerged from the experiences of migration and urban life
- Black women played significant roles as creators, patrons, and subjects of artistic works
Harlem Renaissance connections
- Cultural movement centered in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s and 1930s
- Celebrated Black identity and experiences through literature, music, and visual arts
- Notable women artists and writers (Zora Neale Hurston, Augusta Savage, Bessie Smith)
- Exploration of themes related to migration, urban life, and racial identity
- Influence extended beyond Harlem to other Northern cities with significant Black populations
Literature of migration experiences
- Novels depicting journeys from South to North (The Street by Ann Petry, Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston)
- Poetry capturing the emotions and challenges of migration (Gwendolyn Brooks, Margaret Walker)
- Autobiographical works recounting personal migration stories (Coming of Age in Mississippi by Anne Moody)
- Short stories and essays exploring life in Northern Black communities
- Oral histories and folklore collections preserving migrant narratives
Visual arts and music
- Paintings and sculptures depicting scenes of migration and urban Black life (Jacob Lawrence's Migration Series)
- Development of new musical styles influenced by the Great Migration (urban blues, jazz)
- Photography documenting Black life in Northern cities (Gordon Parks, James Van Der Zee)
- Murals and public art projects in Black neighborhoods celebrating community history
- Emergence of Black theater companies and performance spaces in Northern cities
Legacy and long-term effects
- Great Migration's impact continues to shape the experiences of Black women in America today
- Demographic shifts initiated by the migration have had lasting effects on U.S. social and political landscapes
- Ongoing influence on Black identity, culture, and community structures
Demographic shifts in US
- Permanent alteration of racial composition in many Northern and Western cities
- Depopulation of rural Southern Black communities and decline of Black farming traditions
- Concentration of Black populations in urban areas, influencing political representation
- Subsequent "reverse migration" trends of Black Americans moving back to the South
- Impact on suburban demographics as Black families moved out of inner cities
Ongoing North-South relations
- Maintenance of family ties and cultural connections between Northern and Southern Black communities
- Economic links through remittances and support for family members in the South
- Political alliances between Northern and Southern Black leaders on civil rights issues
- Cultural exchanges and influences between urban and rural Black traditions
- Tourism and heritage preservation efforts focused on Great Migration history
Impact on modern Black identity
- Diverse regional identities within Black American culture (Northern urban vs Southern rural)
- Influence on educational and career aspirations of subsequent generations
- Ongoing debates about assimilation vs cultural preservation in Black communities
- Legacy of migration experiences in shaping responses to contemporary racial issues
- Continued importance of oral histories and family narratives in maintaining connections to migration heritage
Key Terms to Review (26)
A. Philip Randolph: A. Philip Randolph was a prominent African American labor leader and civil rights activist known for his tireless efforts to fight for the rights of Black workers in the United States. He played a crucial role in advocating for labor rights and social justice, particularly through his leadership of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, which was the first predominantly Black labor union recognized by the American Federation of Labor. His activism also extended to organizing the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963, emphasizing the need for economic equality and civil rights.
African American Cultural Renaissance: The African American Cultural Renaissance refers to a period of significant artistic and intellectual growth among Black Americans, particularly during the 1920s and 1930s. This movement was characterized by a flourishing of literature, music, art, and social thought, with New York City's Harlem neighborhood becoming the epicenter. It not only celebrated Black identity and culture but also sought to address the social issues faced by African Americans, providing a powerful counter-narrative to prevailing racial stereotypes.
Black Arts Movement: The Black Arts Movement was a cultural and artistic movement that emerged in the 1960s, aimed at creating a distinct African American identity and promoting black pride through art, literature, and performance. It sought to challenge the dominant white culture, emphasize African heritage, and support the broader struggle for civil rights and social justice.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, effectively overturning the 'separate but equal' doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896. This ruling became a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement, challenging the systemic inequalities faced by Black Americans in educational institutions and beyond.
Chicago: Chicago is a major city in the United States, known for its significant role during the Great Migration, a movement in the early to mid-20th century where millions of African Americans moved from the rural South to urban areas in the North. As a destination for many seeking better opportunities and escaping Jim Crow laws, Chicago became a vibrant center for Black culture, politics, and social life, particularly through the establishment of the South Side as a cultural hub.
Chicago Defender: The Chicago Defender was a prominent African American newspaper founded in 1905 that played a crucial role in the dissemination of news and information to the Black community. It became a significant voice during the Great Migration, advocating for civil rights and highlighting the experiences and struggles of African Americans relocating from the rural South to urban centers in the North.
Civil Rights Act: The Civil Rights Act is landmark legislation passed in 1964 that aimed to end discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This act represented a significant achievement in the civil rights movement, addressing issues of segregation, employment discrimination, and voting rights while providing a legal framework to combat injustice and promote equality in various aspects of American life.
Detroit: Detroit is a major city in the United States, known as the heart of the American automobile industry. It played a pivotal role during the Great Migration, as many African Americans moved there seeking better job opportunities and escaping racial discrimination in the South. The city became a symbol of industrial growth and the struggles for civil rights as its population transformed significantly during this period.
Great Migration: The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over six million African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West from the early 20th century until the 1970s. This migration was driven by a combination of factors, including the search for better economic opportunities, escape from racial segregation and violence, and the desire for a better quality of life. The movement significantly impacted demographics, culture, and social dynamics in America, influencing various aspects of society such as economy, art, and civil rights.
Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s, marking a time of significant artistic expression and intellectual engagement within the African American community. This period was characterized by a strong sense of racial pride and a push against the oppression faced by Black Americans, influenced by historical events such as the rise of Jim Crow laws and the Great Migration.
Homestead Act: The Homestead Act was a law enacted in 1862 that provided 160 acres of public land to settlers for a small fee, encouraging westward expansion in the United States. This act was significant as it aimed to promote agricultural development and facilitate the settlement of the American frontier by offering land to individuals, including freed slaves and other marginalized groups, who could cultivate and improve the land for five years to gain ownership.
Ida B. Wells: Ida B. Wells was an African American journalist, educator, and early civil rights activist who played a crucial role in the anti-lynching movement in the United States. Her fearless reporting on racial violence, especially lynching, highlighted systemic racism and injustice, making her a prominent figure in resistance efforts against oppression and an advocate for social reform.
Industrialization: Industrialization refers to the process of transforming an economy from primarily agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods. This shift leads to significant changes in society, including urbanization, technological advancements, and the development of a wage labor force, which are all crucial for understanding various historical movements and transformations.
Jazz age: The jazz age refers to the vibrant period in the 1920s characterized by the popularity of jazz music and cultural flourishing in America, particularly among African Americans. This era marked a time of significant social change, where traditional norms were challenged, leading to greater expression of identity through music, dance, and art. The jazz age was also intertwined with the Great Migration, as many Black Americans moved from rural South to urban centers, bringing their musical traditions and cultural influences with them.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow laws were state and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, enforcing racial segregation and disenfranchising Black Americans. These laws institutionalized a system of oppression that stemmed from post-Reconstruction efforts to maintain white supremacy and control over African Americans, impacting various aspects of life including education, public facilities, and economic opportunities.
Los Angeles: Los Angeles is a major city in California known for its cultural diversity, significant entertainment industry, and historical connections to the Great Migration. As a destination for many African Americans seeking better opportunities during the early to mid-20th century, the city became a vital hub for new communities and cultural expressions.
Migration patterns: Migration patterns refer to the trends and movements of people from one place to another, often influenced by social, economic, and political factors. In the context of the Great Migration, these patterns highlight the mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West during the early to mid-20th century, driven by a search for better opportunities and escaping systemic racism.
New York City: New York City is a major urban center located on the eastern coast of the United States, known for its significant cultural, economic, and historical impact. During the Great Migration, it became a primary destination for African Americans seeking better opportunities and escaping the harsh realities of the Jim Crow South, profoundly influencing the city's demographic and cultural landscape.
Oakland: Oakland is a city in California that became a significant hub for African American culture, activism, and social movements during the 20th century. It is particularly known for its role in the civil rights movement and as a center for the Black Panther Party, which was founded there in 1966. The city's history is deeply intertwined with the Great Migration, as many African Americans moved to Oakland seeking better opportunities and escaping racial discrimination in the South.
Oral Histories: Oral histories are personal recollections and narratives shared through spoken word, preserving cultural and historical knowledge often passed down through generations. This method of storytelling allows individuals and communities to document their experiences, struggles, and triumphs, creating a rich tapestry of lived experiences that might not be captured in written records. They serve as a vital resource in understanding the past and connecting with cultural heritage.
Pan-Africanism: Pan-Africanism is a political and social movement that seeks to unify African people, both on the continent and in the diaspora, in order to foster solidarity and collective identity among them. This ideology emphasizes the shared history, culture, and experiences of people of African descent, and it promotes social justice and economic empowerment through global cooperation. It is particularly significant in the context of major migrations and movements for empowerment in various periods.
Red Summer: Red Summer refers to the wave of racial violence and riots that erupted across the United States in 1919, predominantly affecting African American communities. This period was characterized by numerous incidents of racial conflict, often spurred by racial tensions resulting from the Great Migration, where many Black Americans moved to northern cities in search of better opportunities and living conditions. The violence of Red Summer exposed the deep-seated racial animosity and the struggle for civil rights in America, highlighting the urgent need for social change.
Seattle: Seattle is a major city in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, known for its significant role in the Great Migration. During this period, many African Americans moved from the rural South to urban areas like Seattle in search of better economic opportunities and escaping racial oppression.
Segregation: Segregation is the enforced separation of different racial or ethnic groups within a society, typically in social, political, and economic contexts. It has historically manifested in laws and practices that restrict access to public services, education, housing, and employment opportunities based on race. This systemic division played a crucial role in shaping the experiences and struggles of African Americans throughout history.
Testimonies: Testimonies refer to personal accounts or statements given by individuals, often describing their experiences and perspectives. In the context of the Great Migration, testimonies provide valuable insights into the motivations, challenges, and triumphs of Black individuals and families as they moved from the rural South to urban centers in the North, seeking better opportunities and escaping racial oppression.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process through which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, typically driven by the movement from rural to urban settings. This shift often leads to significant social, economic, and cultural changes, including the growth of cities, changes in labor markets, and transformations in community structures.