2.6 Underground Railroad
9 min read•august 21, 2024
The Underground Railroad was a secret network that helped enslaved African Americans escape to freedom. It emerged from individual acts of resistance and grew into an organized system of safe houses, secret routes, and brave risking their lives to guide fugitives north.
Women played crucial roles in the Underground Railroad, challenging gender norms and expanding women's activism. Black women like and became leaders, conducting dangerous missions and using their experiences to advocate for both abolition and women's rights.
Origins of Underground Railroad
- Underground Railroad emerged as a network of secret routes and safe houses for enslaved African Americans seeking freedom
- Played a crucial role in the broader struggle for Black liberation and women's rights in America
- Demonstrated the resilience and ingenuity of Black women in resisting oppression and advocating for change
Roots in slave resistance
Top images from around the web for Roots in slave resistance
Slave Haven - Underground Railroad Museum - Memphis - Tenn… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Anti-Slavery Resistance Movements | Boundless US History View original
Is this image relevant?
Introduction to Reconstruction | US History II (American Yawp) View original
Is this image relevant?
Slave Haven - Underground Railroad Museum - Memphis - Tenn… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Anti-Slavery Resistance Movements | Boundless US History View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Roots in slave resistance
Slave Haven - Underground Railroad Museum - Memphis - Tenn… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Anti-Slavery Resistance Movements | Boundless US History View original
Is this image relevant?
Introduction to Reconstruction | US History II (American Yawp) View original
Is this image relevant?
Slave Haven - Underground Railroad Museum - Memphis - Tenn… | Flickr View original
Is this image relevant?
Anti-Slavery Resistance Movements | Boundless US History View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Evolved from individual acts of escape to organized networks of support
- Utilized existing African American communication systems and community bonds
- Drew inspiration from Maroon communities (escaped slaves living in hidden settlements)
- Incorporated traditional African spiritual practices and beliefs for strength and guidance
Early networks and routes
- Developed organically in the late 18th and early 19th centuries
- Relied on word-of-mouth information and trusted connections
- Utilized natural landmarks (North Star, rivers) for navigation
- Expanded with the growth of abolitionist societies and religious groups ()
- Adapted routes based on changing laws and increased slave patrols
Key terminology and codes
- "Conductors" guided escaped slaves along the route
- "" or "" referred to escaped slaves
- "" provided safe houses and resources
- "" or "Gospel train" symbolized the journey to freedom
- "" represented the Big Dipper constellation, pointing to the North Star
Women's roles in Underground Railroad
- Women played pivotal roles in the Underground Railroad, often at great personal risk
- Their involvement challenged gender norms and expanded the scope of women's activism
- Black women's participation in the Underground Railroad laid groundwork for future civil rights movements
Conductors and station masters
- Harriet Tubman, known as "Moses," led over 300 slaves to freedom
- managed a major safe house in Indiana with her husband Levi
- coordinated a network of safe houses in Maryland
- Operated under cover of darkness, guiding groups through treacherous terrain
- Developed intricate systems for concealing and transporting fugitives
Spies and information gatherers
- ran an extensive spy network in Richmond, Virginia
- , a freed slave, worked as a spy in the Confederate White House
- Gathered intelligence on slave patrols, safe routes, and sympathetic allies
- Used coded language and disguises to avoid detection
- Exploited assumptions about women's roles to gather information unnoticed
Support and resource providers
- wrote Harriet Tubman's biography to raise funds for her work
- used her writing and speeches to support the cause
- Provided food, clothing, and medical care to escaped slaves
- Raised funds through church groups and women's societies
- Taught literacy and practical skills to help fugitives establish new lives
Notable female abolitionists
- Female abolitionists challenged both racial and gender oppression
- Their work in the Underground Railroad expanded women's roles in public activism
- Many went on to become leaders in the women's suffrage movement
Harriet Tubman's leadership
- Escaped slavery in 1849 and returned South at least 19 times to lead others to freedom
- Earned the nickname "Moses" for her leadership and bravery
- Served as a spy and scout for the Union Army during the Civil War
- Established a home for aged and indigent African Americans after the war
- Advocated for women's suffrage in her later years
Sojourner Truth's contributions
- Born into slavery as Isabella Baumfree, changed her name after gaining freedom
- Delivered powerful speeches, including "Ain't I a Woman?" at women's rights convention
- Recruited Black troops for the Union Army during the Civil War
- Used her platform to advocate for both abolition and women's rights
- Challenged racial and gender stereotypes through her activism and public speaking
Lesser-known heroines
- , first Black woman publisher in North America, aided fugitives in
- escaped slavery by disguising herself as a white male slave owner
- testified in court against her former enslaver, setting legal precedent
- educated freed slaves and wrote about her experiences
- , one of the first African American women to give public lectures on politics and women's rights
Safe houses and stations
- Safe houses formed the backbone of the Underground Railroad network
- Provided crucial respite and resources for fugitives on their journey
- Operators risked severe legal and personal consequences for their involvement
Types of hiding places
- False-bottom wagons concealed passengers during transport
- Secret rooms hidden behind walls or under floorboards
- Attics with removable stairs or hidden entrances
- Root cellars and underground tunnels for emergency escapes
- Barns and outbuildings with hidden compartments (hay bales, false walls)
Risks for station operators
- Faced heavy fines and imprisonment under the
- Risked violent retaliation from slave catchers and pro-slavery mobs
- Could lose social standing and economic opportunities if discovered
- Operated under constant fear of betrayal or accidental discovery
- Developed elaborate systems of signals and codes to minimize risk
Urban vs rural safe houses
- Urban safe houses utilized crowded neighborhoods for anonymity
- Rural stations often relied on isolated locations and natural cover
- City stations could provide better access to resources and information
- Country safe houses offered more space for hiding larger groups
- Urban networks could move fugitives more quickly between stations
Communication and secrecy
- Effective communication was crucial for the success of the Underground Railroad
- Operators developed complex systems of codes and signals to maintain secrecy
- These methods drew on African American cultural traditions and ingenuity
Quilts as coded messages
- "Monkey Wrench" pattern signaled preparation for journey
- "Wagon Wheel" indicated packing supplies for travel
- "Bear Paw" design directed fugitives to follow animal tracks in mountains
- Quilts hung on clotheslines or in windows conveyed different messages
- Debate continues among historians about the extent and specificity of quilt codes
Songs and spirituals
- "Follow the Drinking Gourd" provided directions using celestial navigation
- "Wade in the Water" advised fugitives to travel through water to avoid tracking
- "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" signaled that a conductor was coming
- Double meanings in lyrics allowed open singing without arousing suspicion
- Rhythms and melodies preserved African musical traditions while conveying crucial information
Written correspondence techniques
- Used invisible ink made from lemon juice or milk
- Employed codewords and phrases with hidden meanings
- Concealed messages within seemingly innocuous letters
- Utilized newspaper advertisements with coded language
- Developed intricate systems of symbols and markings on buildings or fences
Routes and destinations
- Underground Railroad routes evolved in response to changing laws and increased enforcement
- Destinations shifted based on political climate and available support networks
- Routes often followed natural features and existing transportation networks
Popular escape paths
- Coastal routes utilized maritime connections and seafaring communities
- provided a major corridor from South to North
- region offered multiple crossing points into Canada
- Appalachian Mountain routes provided cover and natural landmarks
- Mississippi River served as both obstacle and opportunity for western routes
Canada as primary sanctuary
- Became preferred destination after Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
- Offered legal protection and freedom from U.S. slave laws
- Established Black communities (Buxton, Dawn Settlement) provided support
- Canadian government generally supportive of fugitive slaves
- Allowed fugitives to build new lives without fear of recapture
Northern states vs Southern routes
- Northern states offered relative safety but risk of capture remained
- Southern routes (Florida to Spanish territories, Mexico) less common but utilized
- Northern cities (Boston, ) had established free Black communities
- Southern routes often longer and more dangerous
- Choice of route depended on starting location, available connections, and current events
Impact on slave communities
- Underground Railroad had profound effects on enslaved populations and plantation life
- Created hope and resistance among slaves while increasing tension and paranoia among slaveholders
- Influenced broader discussions about slavery and freedom in American society
Family separations and reunifications
- Escapes often separated families, with individuals leaving loved ones behind
- Some conductors specialized in reuniting families across free and slave states
- Created networks for communication between separated family members
- Motivated some to return South to rescue family members left behind
- Reunifications in freedom became powerful symbols of resistance and perseverance
Psychological effects on slaves
- Provided hope and inspiration for those remaining in bondage
- Created anxiety and fear of reprisals for those left behind
- Empowered slaves with knowledge of resistance and outside support
- Challenged internalized notions of inferiority imposed by slave system
- Strengthened resolve and community bonds among those planning escapes
Repercussions for failed attempts
- Severe physical punishments (whipping, branding) for captured fugitives
- Increased restrictions and surveillance on plantations after escape attempts
- Sale of suspected flight risks to Deep South plantations
- Emotional trauma from failed attempts and separation from support networks
- Some slaves chose suicide over recapture, becoming martyrs to the cause
Legal and political context
- Underground Railroad operated within a complex and evolving legal landscape
- Heightened tensions between North and South over issue of fugitive slaves
- Influenced broader debates about states' rights and federal power
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
- Required citizens to assist in capture and return of fugitive slaves
- Imposed heavy fines and imprisonment for aiding fugitives
- Denied accused fugitives right to trial by jury or testimony in their defense
- Incentivized false claims against free Blacks in Northern states
- Galvanized abolitionist sentiment and increased Underground Railroad activity
Abolitionist movement's influence
- Provided ideological and moral framework for Underground Railroad
- Utilized print media and public speaking to raise awareness and support
- Challenged religious justifications for slavery through Biblical interpretation
- Lobbied for political and legal changes to restrict slavery's expansion
- Created networks of sympathizers and activists across racial and gender lines
North vs South tensions
- Fugitive slave laws became major point of contention between states
- Northern states passed personal liberty laws to protect accused fugitives
- Southern states demanded stricter enforcement of fugitive slave laws
- Debates over slavery in new territories intensified sectional divide
- Underground Railroad activities fueled Southern fears of slave rebellions and economic loss
Legacy and historical significance
- Underground Railroad left lasting impact on American history and culture
- Continues to inspire modern social justice movements and discussions of resistance
- Challenges simplistic narratives about slavery and emancipation
Myths vs realities
- Popular image of organized "railroad" with set routes oversimplifies complex networks
- Exaggerated claims about secret tunnels and elaborate hiding places
- Overlooked contributions of free Black communities in Northern cities
- Tendency to focus on white abolitionists at expense of Black agency and leadership
- Ongoing historical research reveals more nuanced understanding of operations and participants
Impact on Civil War
- Heightened tensions between North and South leading up to conflict
- Provided Union armies with valuable intelligence and guides
- Many Underground Railroad operators became recruiters for U.S. Colored Troops
- Demonstrated potential for interracial cooperation in pursuit of justice
- Influenced Lincoln's evolving views on emancipation and Black military service
Modern interpretations and memorials
- National Underground Railroad Freedom Center in Cincinnati preserves history
- Network to Freedom program identifies and protects associated sites
- Harriet Tubman's home in Auburn, NY designated as National Historical Park
- Contemporary artists and writers continue to explore Underground Railroad themes
- Inspires modern movements against human trafficking and for immigrant rights
Key Terms to Review (35)
Abolitionism: Abolitionism is a movement aimed at ending slavery and promoting the emancipation of enslaved people. It arose in response to the moral, ethical, and political injustices of slavery, advocating for the rights and freedom of enslaved individuals. This movement played a crucial role in shaping societal views on race and human rights, particularly during the 18th and 19th centuries, influencing events like the Trans-Atlantic slave trade and networks such as the Underground Railroad that supported escaping enslaved people.
Anti-slavery society: An anti-slavery society is an organization or movement dedicated to the abolition of slavery and the promotion of freedom for enslaved individuals. These societies played a crucial role in advocating for the rights of enslaved people, raising awareness about the horrors of slavery, and supporting efforts such as the Underground Railroad, which provided escape routes for those seeking freedom from bondage.
Canada: Canada, in the context of the Underground Railroad, served as a vital destination for enslaved people escaping from the United States in search of freedom. This northern country represented hope and safety as many sought refuge from the oppressive conditions of slavery, particularly during the mid-19th century. The allure of Canada was enhanced by its laws that prohibited slavery and its relatively welcoming stance towards Black individuals seeking asylum.
Cargo: In the context of the Underground Railroad, 'cargo' referred to the enslaved people who were transported to freedom, often under perilous conditions. This term highlights the dehumanizing perspective of viewing individuals as mere property or goods to be moved from one location to another, which was a stark reality during the era of slavery. The use of the term also emphasizes the urgency and risk associated with the journey to escape enslavement, as well as the complex network of support that made such escapes possible.
Catherine Coffin: Catherine Coffin was a prominent abolitionist and conductor on the Underground Railroad, known for her efforts to assist enslaved individuals seeking freedom in the mid-19th century. She played a significant role in providing safe houses and support to those escaping slavery, often working alongside other key figures in the movement, which highlighted the importance of collective action in the fight against oppression.
Charlotte Forten Grimké: Charlotte Forten Grimké was a prominent African American abolitionist, educator, and poet in the 19th century, known for her significant contributions to the education and empowerment of Black communities. She was deeply involved in the abolitionist movement and became one of the first Black women to teach in public schools in the United States, advocating for educational reform and access for African Americans, particularly through her connections with the Underground Railroad.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws or commands of a government, as a form of protest against unjust policies. This concept is rooted in the belief that individuals have the moral duty to resist laws that perpetuate injustice, often leading to social and political change. It has been utilized throughout history by various movements to challenge systemic oppression and advocate for civil rights.
Conductors: In the context of the Underground Railroad, conductors were individuals who played a vital role in guiding and assisting enslaved people as they escaped to freedom. These individuals provided shelter, directions, and resources, often risking their own safety to help others. Conductors worked secretly and collaboratively within a network of safe houses, making significant contributions to the efforts aimed at abolishing slavery in America.
Dred Scott Decision: The Dred Scott Decision was a landmark Supreme Court ruling in 1857 that denied citizenship and constitutional rights to African American slaves, ruling that Dred Scott, a slave, was not entitled to sue for his freedom. This decision intensified national tensions over slavery, ultimately impacting the Underground Railroad and the efforts of abolitionists seeking to help enslaved people escape to freedom.
Drinking gourd: The drinking gourd refers to a symbol used in the context of the Underground Railroad, specifically representing the Big Dipper constellation. This symbol served as a guide for escaping enslaved people to navigate their way to freedom, as the North Star, which is located at the end of the dipper's handle, points north.
Elizabeth Van Lew: Elizabeth Van Lew was a prominent Union spy during the American Civil War, known for her intelligence operations in Richmond, Virginia. A white Southern woman who opposed slavery, she used her social status and connections to aid enslaved individuals and gather crucial information for the Union Army. Her actions not only challenged societal norms of her time but also played a significant role in the broader context of espionage during the Civil War.
Ellen Craft: Ellen Craft was a notable African American woman who gained fame in the 19th century for her daring escape from slavery, alongside her husband William Craft, using a clever disguise. This act of resistance took place in 1848 when they traveled from Georgia to Philadelphia by portraying Ellen as a white man and William as her slave. Their escape not only highlighted the desperate circumstances faced by enslaved people but also drew significant attention to the abolitionist movement.
Frances Ellen Watkins Harper: Frances Ellen Watkins Harper was a prominent 19th-century African American writer, poet, and activist, known for her work in abolitionism and women's rights. She became one of the first African American women to publish a short story and was instrumental in promoting the rights of Black women through her writings and speeches, linking her work to broader social movements.
Frederick Douglass: Frederick Douglass was a prominent African American social reformer, abolitionist, and writer who escaped from slavery and became a leading voice for human rights in the 19th century. His powerful speeches and writings highlighted the injustices of slavery and the importance of civil rights, playing a crucial role in the fight against oppression and advocating for the freedom and equality of all people.
Freedom seekers: Freedom seekers are individuals, primarily enslaved African Americans, who actively sought to escape the bonds of slavery and attain their liberty. This term encapsulates the courage and determination of those who embarked on perilous journeys to find freedom, often through networks like the Underground Railroad that provided critical support and safe passage.
Freedom Train: The Freedom Train was a traveling exhibit that toured the United States from 1947 to 1949, showcasing artifacts and documents that highlighted the nation's commitment to civil rights and freedom. It served as a symbol of the struggle for racial equality, emphasizing the importance of liberty and justice for all Americans, especially in the context of African American history. The train was part of a broader movement to educate the public about civil rights issues and the contributions of Black Americans to the nation.
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850: The Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was a law that required the return of escaped enslaved people to their enslavers and imposed penalties on anyone aiding in their escape. This act intensified the existing tensions between the Northern and Southern states by mandating that free states assist in the capture and return of fugitives, undermining local laws that offered protection to escaping individuals. It played a crucial role in the operations of the Underground Railroad, as many abolitionists risked their lives to defy this law and help enslaved people reach freedom.
Great Lakes: The Great Lakes are a group of five large freshwater lakes located in North America, consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario. These lakes are significant not only for their natural beauty but also for their role in transportation, trade, and the settlement patterns of various communities, particularly during the era of the Underground Railroad.
Hannah Leverton: Hannah Leverton was an African American woman known for her involvement in the Underground Railroad, specifically as a conductor who assisted escaping enslaved people. Leverton's contributions highlight the critical role that Black women played in the resistance against slavery, showcasing their bravery and dedication to the cause of freedom. Her story is a testament to the resilience and agency of Black women during a time when they faced severe societal and legal barriers.
Harriet Tubman: Harriet Tubman was a former enslaved woman who became a leading figure in the fight against slavery in the United States, most notably known for her role as a conductor on the Underground Railroad. Her courageous actions not only aided countless enslaved people to escape to freedom, but they also symbolize the broader struggle against oppression and the quest for equality.
Jane Johnson: Jane Johnson was a formerly enslaved woman who made a significant escape to freedom via the Underground Railroad in the mid-19th century. Her journey reflects the broader struggles of Black women seeking autonomy and liberation during a time when slavery was pervasive in America, showcasing both individual resilience and the collective efforts of abolitionist networks.
Maria Stewart: Maria Stewart was a prominent African American activist, educator, and writer in the 19th century, recognized as one of the first women in the United States to speak publicly about the rights of Black Americans and women's rights. She was deeply involved in abolitionist movements and made significant contributions to early feminist thought, advocating for education and self-improvement among African Americans. Her speeches and writings challenged societal norms and urged her audience to fight for justice and equality.
Mary Ann Shadd Cary: Mary Ann Shadd Cary was a prominent African American educator, journalist, and abolitionist in the 19th century, known for her advocacy for black rights and women's suffrage. She played a crucial role in the Underground Railroad as an outspoken proponent of education and self-help for African Americans. Additionally, her involvement in the formation of black women's clubs and organizations highlighted her commitment to community building and social justice.
Mary Bowser: Mary Bowser was a formerly enslaved woman who became a prominent spy for the Union during the Civil War, using her intelligence and access to Confederate leaders to gather vital information. She is best known for infiltrating the household of Confederate President Jefferson Davis, where she collected intelligence that significantly aided the Union war effort. Her bravery and contributions highlight the vital roles that Black women played in the fight for freedom and justice during this turbulent period.
Moral Suasion: Moral suasion refers to the use of persuasive communication to influence individuals or groups towards a moral position or ethical behavior. This concept was particularly significant during the abolitionist movement, where activists sought to change public opinion and encourage the end of slavery through appeals to conscience and moral responsibility. By highlighting the injustices of slavery, moral suasion aimed to inspire action and foster a sense of empathy among the public.
Ohio River Valley: The Ohio River Valley is a geographic region in the United States that includes the valley of the Ohio River, which flows from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois. This area became a crucial route for the Underground Railroad, serving as a pathway for escaping enslaved people seeking freedom in the North and Canada, particularly during the 19th century.
Oral Histories: Oral histories are personal recollections and narratives shared through spoken word, preserving cultural and historical knowledge often passed down through generations. This method of storytelling allows individuals and communities to document their experiences, struggles, and triumphs, creating a rich tapestry of lived experiences that might not be captured in written records. They serve as a vital resource in understanding the past and connecting with cultural heritage.
Passengers: In the context of the Underground Railroad, 'passengers' refers to the enslaved individuals who sought freedom by traveling along a secret network of routes and safe houses. These passengers relied on the help of abolitionists and allies who provided guidance, shelter, and support, risking their own safety to aid those escaping enslavement. This term highlights the courage and desperation of those seeking liberation as well as the collaborative effort needed to navigate this perilous journey.
Philadelphia: Philadelphia was a crucial city in the history of the Underground Railroad, serving as a key stop and hub for escaped enslaved people seeking freedom in the northern states and Canada. Known for its abolitionist movements, the city played an important role in the organization and support of the Underground Railroad network, offering safe houses, resources, and active involvement from local abolitionists and free Black communities. Its strategic location made it a vital point for those fleeing slavery in the South.
Quakers: Quakers, also known as the Religious Society of Friends, are a Christian denomination founded in the mid-17th century that emphasizes direct experience of God and the inner light within each individual. Quakers played a crucial role in various social justice movements, including the abolition of slavery and supporting the Underground Railroad, as their beliefs emphasize equality and non-violence.
Safe House Keeper: A safe house keeper was an individual who provided shelter and protection to escaping enslaved people along the Underground Railroad. These keepers played a crucial role in the network, as they offered a safe haven from slave catchers and hostile environments, allowing those fleeing enslavement to rest and plan their next steps towards freedom. Their homes often served as temporary lodgings where escapees could find food, support, and companionship on their arduous journey.
Sarah Bradford: Sarah Bradford was an American author and abolitionist known for her biographical writings about Harriet Tubman, who played a crucial role in the Underground Railroad. Her work aimed to highlight the struggles and achievements of Black women, particularly Tubman's efforts to lead enslaved people to freedom. Bradford’s books not only documented Tubman's life but also served as a form of advocacy for the abolitionist movement and the rights of African Americans.
Slave Narratives: Slave narratives are first-person accounts written by individuals who experienced enslavement in the United States. These powerful texts provide insight into the harsh realities of slavery, detailing personal experiences, struggles, and aspirations for freedom. They often served as a means of resistance and advocacy, highlighting the inhumane conditions of plantation life and the determination of enslaved people to seek freedom through avenues like the Underground Railroad. Slave narratives are also crucial in understanding the adaptation process of Africans arriving in the Americas.
Sojourner Truth: Sojourner Truth was an African American abolitionist and women's rights activist who is best known for her speech, 'Ain't I a Woman?', delivered in 1851. Her life and work highlighted the interconnected struggles against slavery, racial injustice, and gender inequality during a transformative era in American history.
Station Masters: Station masters were individuals who played a critical role in the Underground Railroad, serving as key points of contact and support for escaping enslaved people. They managed specific 'stations' or safe houses where fugitives could rest, receive food, and gather information about their next steps toward freedom. Station masters were often part of a larger network of abolitionists and sympathizers who worked together to facilitate the escape of enslaved individuals, risking their own safety to aid in this cause.