🇬🇷Greek Archaeology Unit 8 – Archaic Period

Key Characteristics of the Archaic Period

• Marked transition from the Dark Ages to a period of cultural and artistic revival
• Emergence of the polis (city-state) as the dominant political and social unit
  • Each polis had its own government, laws, and customs
  • Fierce competition and rivalry among poleis
• Rise of aristocratic families and the establishment of tyrannies in some city-states
• Colonization movement led to the establishment of Greek settlements across the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions
  • Sought new land, resources, and trading opportunities
• Development of new artistic styles and techniques in pottery, sculpture, and architecture
• Adoption of the Phoenician alphabet and the spread of literacy
• Increased trade and cultural exchange with the Near East and Egypt
• Foundation of the Panhellenic sanctuaries and festivals (Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia, Nemea)

Major Archaeological Sites

• Athens and the Athenian Acropolis
  • Early temples and fortifications
  • Dedication of the colossal Athena Promachos statue
• Corinth and the Temple of Apollo at Corinth
  • Earliest known stone temple in mainland Greece
• Samos and the Heraion of Samos
  • Largest temple in Greece during the Archaic period
• Ephesus and the Temple of Artemis (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World)
• Delphi and the Sanctuary of Apollo
  • Oracle and major Panhellenic sanctuary
• Olympia and the Sanctuary of Zeus
  • Site of the Olympic Games and major Panhellenic sanctuary
• Miletus and its grid-planned urban layout
• Naukratis, a Greek trading post in Egypt

Artistic Developments

• Black-figure pottery technique
  • Figures painted in black silhouette against a red background
  • Details incised with a sharp tool
  • Artists: Kleitias, Exekias, Amasis Painter
• Red-figure pottery technique developed in Athens around 530 BCE
  • Figures left in red with background painted black
  • Allowed for greater detail and expression
• Orientalizing style in pottery and metalwork
  • Influence of Near Eastern motifs and techniques
• Emergence of life-sized, freestanding marble sculpture
  • Kouroi (male) and korai (female) figures
  • Stylized, frontal poses with archaic smile
• Development of architectural sculpture (pedimental sculptures, metopes, friezes)
• Advancements in bronze casting and the creation of large-scale bronze statues

Architectural Innovations

• Transition from mud-brick and wooden structures to stone temples
• Development of the Doric and Ionic orders
  • Doric: simple, sturdy, and masculine (Parthenon)
  • Ionic: more slender, elegant, and feminine (Erechtheion)
• Emergence of the peripteral temple layout
  • Columns surrounding all four sides of the cella (central chamber)
• Refinement of proportions and the use of optical illusions
  • Entasis: slight swelling of columns to counteract optical illusion
  • Stylobate curvature: slight upward curvature of the temple platform
• Introduction of the treasury building type in Panhellenic sanctuaries
• Early examples of stoas (covered walkways) and bouleuteria (council chambers)

Social and Political Changes

• Rise of the hoplite class and the phalanx formation in warfare
  • Hoplites: heavily armed infantry soldiers
  • Phalanx: close-ranked formation of hoplites
• Emergence of a middle class of farmers, artisans, and merchants
• Establishment of written laws and constitutions in some city-states
  • Draco's law code in Athens (621 BCE)
  • Solon's reforms in Athens (594 BCE)
• Development of political institutions and offices
  • Archons, strategoi, and other magistrates
  • Councils (boulē) and assemblies (ekklēsia)
• Establishment of colonies as a means of addressing social and economic issues
  • Overpopulation, land shortage, and political unrest
• Increased participation in Panhellenic festivals and religious cults

Trade and Cultural Exchange

• Intensification of trade within the Greek world and with neighboring regions
  • Aegean, Ionian, and Black Sea trade networks
  • Exchange of goods, ideas, and artistic influences
• Establishment of Greek trading posts and emporia in foreign lands
  • Al Mina in Syria, Naukratis in Egypt, Gravisca in Etruria
• Adoption and adaptation of foreign technologies and artistic motifs
  • Oriental influences in pottery, metalwork, and ivory carving
• Spread of Greek culture and language through colonization and trade
• Increased contact and interaction with non-Greek peoples
  • Phoenicians, Egyptians, Lydians, Etruscans
• Development of a common Greek identity and the concept of "Hellenicity"

Technological Advancements

• Improvements in agriculture and food production
  • Iron tools and implements
  • Introduction of new crops and farming techniques
• Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation
  • Invention of the penteconter (fifty-oared ship)
  • Use of the stars and constellations for navigation
• Innovations in pottery production
  • Fast wheel for shaping vessels
  • Updraft kiln for firing at higher temperatures
• Development of new building techniques and tools
  • Lever and pulley systems for lifting heavy blocks
  • Carpenter's square and plumb bob for accurate construction
• Advancements in metalworking and bronze casting
  • Lost-wax technique for creating hollow bronze statues
• Invention of coinage in Lydia and its adoption by Greek city-states

Legacy and Influence on Classical Greece

• Foundation for the cultural, artistic, and intellectual achievements of Classical Greece
• Establishment of the polis as the basic political and social unit
  • Development of democracy in Athens
  • Emergence of political philosophy and the concept of citizenship
• Artistic and architectural styles that inspired and influenced later Greek and Roman art
  • Canon of proportions in sculpture
  • Refinement of the Doric and Ionic orders
• Spread of Greek language, culture, and religion through colonization
  • Greek as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean
  • Syncretism and cultural exchange with other civilizations
• Panhellenic festivals and sanctuaries as unifying forces in the Greek world
  • Shared religious beliefs and practices
  • Opportunities for cultural and athletic competition
• Intellectual foundations for the development of Greek philosophy, science, and literature
  • Pre-Socratic philosophers (Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus)
  • Early historians (Hecataeus of Miletus)
  • Lyric poets (Sappho, Alcaeus, Pindar)