11.2 The impact of barbarian invasions and political instability
5 min read•august 15, 2024
The barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire brought chaos and destruction to ancient cities. From the sacking Rome to the conquering North Africa, these attacks exposed urban vulnerabilities and disrupted life across the empire. The Eastern Roman Empire also faced invasions, with , Persians, and Arabs threatening major cities.
As the Western Empire collapsed, political instability further challenged urban centers. emerged, creating a patchwork of competing states. The Byzantine Empire tried but failed to restore unity. Cities had to adapt, becoming more autonomous and developing new forms of governance as faded away.
Barbarian Invasions of Ancient Cities
Major Barbarian Attacks on Roman Cities
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The Visigoth in 410 CE exposed the vulnerability of even the greatest Roman cities to barbarian attacks and sent shockwaves throughout the empire
invaded Gaul in the 450s CE and sacked several major Roman cities (Metz, Reims), spreading fear and devastation
The Vandals invaded North Africa in the 420s-430s CE, conquering key cities (Carthage) and disrupting the critical grain supply to Rome
of Britain in the 400s-500s CE led to the fall of Roman cities and towns (Londinium, Verulamium) as urban life declined
Invasions of the Eastern Roman Empire
Slavic and Avar invasions in the Balkans in the 500s-600s CE destroyed many Roman cities in the region (Sirmium, Singidunum)
The captured the major Byzantine city of Antioch in 540 CE in the wars of Justinian's reign
The of the 600s CE seized important eastern cities from the Byzantines (Damascus, Jerusalem, Alexandria)
The invaded Byzantine Thrace in the 600s-800s CE, threatening Constantinople and destroying several cities (Adrianople)
Political Instability After Roman Collapse
Fragmentation of the Western Roman Empire
The deposition of the last Western Roman emperor in 476 CE by marked the formal end of the Western Empire and left Italy politically fragmented
Germanic kingdoms emerged in former Western Roman provinces like the , , and , creating a patchwork of competing states
The Western Empire broke up into various rival barbarian kingdoms (, , Vandals, ) that frequently fought each other
Some isolated regions like Soissons, Dalmatia and Britannia maintained Roman rule for a time before eventually falling to invaders
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Attempts to Restore Unity
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire tried to reassert control over some lost western territories in the 500s CE under but failed to fully restore political unity
The Byzantines managed to reconquer some parts of Italy, North Africa and southern Spain but these gains proved temporary and unsustainable
The devastating in the 540s CE weakened the Byzantine army and tax base, forcing them to abandon most of these ambitious western reconquests
The Byzantines were further distracted by wars with Persia and then the rise of Islam, leaving them unable to effectively project power in the West
Consequences for Urban Autonomy and Governance
Many cities became semi-autonomous as centralized Roman authority faded, having to fend for themselves and make their own political arrangements
Some cities voluntarily submitted to barbarian rulers in exchange for protection, while others tried to maintain independence
Bishops and local elites increasingly took over the administration and defense of cities as imperial institutions broke down
Cities experimented with new forms of government like popularly elected officials, , and power-sharing between secular and religious authorities
Consequences of Barbarian Invasions
Damage to Urban Infrastructure
Successive waves of invasions damaged or destroyed key infrastructure like , walls, and roads in many cities that went unrepaired
The loss of security and damage to trade networks caused steep urban population decline in most former Roman cities in the 400s-600s CE
Aqueducts were a frequent target of invaders, depriving cities of fresh water and sanitation when they were cut
Monumental public buildings (amphitheaters, baths, temples, basilicas) fell into disrepair or were cannibalized for building materials
Depopulation and Abandonment of Cities
Some cities like Rome itself lost up to 90% of their peak Roman population due to deaths, captives taken, and refugees fleeing
Declining populations and tax revenues made it hard to maintain urban services, leading to decay and partial abandonment of many cities
Large areas within city walls became uninhabited with abandoned buildings, overgrown vegetation and even farms and pastureland
Cities shrank and became more ruralized, with smaller, poorer populations living amidst the ruins of their former glory
Decline in Quality of Urban Life
The quality of urban life declined with loss of amenities, deteriorating sanitation and living standards for remaining residents
Many cities lost access to clean aqueduct water, leading to unsanitary conditions and disease
Urban services like public baths, latrines, sewers, street cleaning and trash collection fell into disrepair
The decline of long-distance trade reduced access to imported goods and luxuries that had enriched urban life
Cities became more self-sufficient and focused on basic needs rather than the lavish public spaces and entertainments of the Roman era
Urban Responses to Invasions
Fortification and Defensive Measures
Many cities built or strengthened defensive walls, becoming more inward-looking and fortified
Some cities reduced their defended area, with smaller perimeters enclosing only the core as suburbs were abandoned
Amphitheaters, temples and other solid stone buildings were converted into fortresses
City walls were hastily repaired with rubble and spolia (repurposed stone) from abandoned buildings
Some cities built walls for the first time, like Constantinople's massive built in the early 400s CE
Militarization of City Governments
Urban governments became more militarized, diverting resources to defense and maintaining armed forces
City officials took on military roles and titles as defense became the top priority
Local elites raised private armies or militias to defend their cities in the absence of imperial troops
Some cities came to arrangements with barbarian rulers, receiving protection in exchange for tribute or submission
Cities in frontier areas became more like armed camps than civilian settlements
Adaptation and Self-Reliance
Self-reliance and providing for defense became a key priority as cities could no longer count on imperial armies for security
Local food production within and around cities became critical as long-distance trade broke down
Cities stockpiled food and supplies to withstand sieges, with granaries and storehouses
Some cities maintained a level of self-governance and civil society through the efforts of local elites and the church
Cities that adapted and found effective defensive and economic arrangements had a better chance of surviving the upheavals of the era
Key Terms to Review (29)
Alemanni: The Alemanni were a group of Germanic tribes that inhabited regions of present-day southwestern Germany and parts of Switzerland during the early medieval period. Their interactions with the Roman Empire significantly influenced the political landscape of the time, particularly during a period marked by barbarian invasions and instability in Roman territories.
Anglo-Saxon invasions: The Anglo-Saxon invasions refer to the migration and settlement of various Germanic tribes, primarily the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, in Britain from the 5th to the 7th centuries. These invasions played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of early medieval Britain, leading to the establishment of several kingdoms and marking the decline of Roman influence in the region.
Aqueducts: Aqueducts are impressive engineering structures designed to transport water from a distant source to cities and agricultural lands. They symbolize the technological advancements of ancient civilizations, particularly in urban planning and public health, reflecting the importance of water supply for both daily life and infrastructure.
Arab Islamic Conquests: The Arab Islamic Conquests refer to the series of military campaigns and territorial expansions initiated by Arab Muslim armies during the 7th and 8th centuries, leading to the rapid establishment of Islamic rule across vast regions of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe. These conquests were driven by a combination of religious zeal, political ambitions, and economic motives, significantly altering the cultural and political landscape of the conquered territories.
Attila the Hun: Attila the Hun was a powerful ruler of the Huns from 434 to 453 AD, known for his fierce military campaigns across Europe and his role in the decline of the Western Roman Empire. His leadership marked a significant period of barbarian invasions that contributed to political instability and fear in the Roman world, showcasing the fragility of Roman authority during this tumultuous time.
Avars: The Avars were a nomadic people of Central Asian origin who migrated into Europe during the 6th century and played a significant role in the political and military landscape of the time. They established a powerful khaganate in the Carpathian Basin, influencing various regions through their invasions and interactions with other groups, notably impacting the stability of the Roman Empire's borders and contributing to the broader patterns of barbarian invasions.
Bulgars: The Bulgars were a semi-nomadic people originally from Central Asia who migrated to the Balkans in the 7th century, establishing the First Bulgarian Empire. Their presence significantly influenced the cultural and political landscape of Eastern Europe, particularly during the period of barbarian invasions and political instability.
Burgundians: The Burgundians were a Germanic tribe that played a significant role during the decline of the Western Roman Empire, establishing a kingdom in what is now modern-day France and Switzerland. Their movements and eventual settlement in the region contributed to the broader trends of barbarian invasions, political instability, and the transformation of the post-Roman landscape in Europe.
Citizen Assemblies: Citizen assemblies are gatherings of citizens who come together to discuss and make decisions on political issues, typically functioning as a form of direct democracy. These assemblies were vital in ancient Greek city-states, particularly Athens, where they allowed citizens to participate actively in governance and express their opinions on matters such as laws and policies. Their role became increasingly significant during times of political instability, especially when traditional forms of governance were challenged by external pressures, including barbarian invasions.
Fortifications: Fortifications are military constructions designed to protect a city or region from enemy attacks. They often include walls, towers, and gates that not only served defensive purposes but also symbolized the power and wealth of the city. These structures were crucial in both Greek and Roman cities as they reflected their political stability and military strength while also influencing urban planning and social dynamics.
Franks in Gaul: The Franks were a group of Germanic tribes that settled in the region of Gaul, which corresponds to modern-day France and parts of Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland, during the decline of the Roman Empire. Their presence marked a significant transformation in the political landscape of the region, influencing the fall of Roman authority and the emergence of new kingdoms in Western Europe.
Germanic Kingdoms: Germanic kingdoms were various tribal states established by Germanic peoples in Europe during the early Middle Ages, following the decline of the Western Roman Empire. These kingdoms played a significant role in shaping the cultural and political landscape of medieval Europe, as they transformed Roman territories into new realms governed by Germanic traditions and customs.
Imperial authority: Imperial authority refers to the centralized power and control exercised by an emperor or ruling body over a vast territory and its diverse populations. This concept is crucial in understanding how empires maintained governance, managed resources, and asserted dominance, especially during periods of external threats like invasions or internal strife.
Justinian I: Justinian I was the Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565 AD, known for his ambitious efforts to revive the glory of the Roman Empire and for his significant legal reforms. His reign marked a time of political instability due to external pressures from barbarian invasions and internal challenges, which shaped his policies and military campaigns aimed at consolidating the empire's power and territory.
Odoacer: Odoacer was a Germanic chieftain who became the first King of Italy after deposing the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 AD. His rise to power marked a significant shift in the political landscape of Italy and is often seen as a key moment in the transition from the Western Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, highlighting the impact of barbarian invasions and the resulting political instability during this period.
Ostrogoths in Italy: The Ostrogoths were a branch of the Gothic people who settled in Italy during the late 5th and early 6th centuries, establishing a kingdom that lasted until the Byzantine reconquest. They played a crucial role in the transformation of the Italian landscape after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, blending Roman traditions with their own Germanic customs. The Ostrogothic Kingdom is significant for its attempts to maintain Roman administrative structures while also implementing their own cultural practices, reflecting the broader impacts of barbarian invasions and political instability in post-Roman Europe.
Plague of Justinian: The Plague of Justinian was a devastating pandemic that struck the Byzantine Empire, beginning in 541 AD during the reign of Emperor Justinian I. This outbreak is considered one of the first recorded pandemics in history, believed to have been caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium, which also caused the Black Death centuries later. Its widespread impact led to significant demographic and economic changes that influenced the political landscape of the empire.
Public buildings: Public buildings refer to structures that serve the community and provide spaces for civic functions, social activities, and public administration. These buildings are essential in defining the character of Greek and Roman cities, serving not just practical purposes but also embodying the values and aspirations of their societies. They often include temples, theaters, basilicas, and forums, which highlight the civic pride and cultural achievements of the people.
Romulus Augustulus: Romulus Augustulus was the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, ruling from 475 to 476 AD before being deposed by the Germanic king Odoacer. His reign marked the end of the Roman Empire in the West and symbolized the transition from ancient Rome to the medieval world. As a figure, Romulus represents not just a singular leader but also the political instability and vulnerability of the Western Roman Empire during this tumultuous period, when barbarian invasions were reshaping Europe.
Sack of Rome: The Sack of Rome refers to the capture and looting of the city of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 AD, which marked a significant event in the decline of the Western Roman Empire. This event not only symbolized the vulnerability of the once-mighty empire but also triggered widespread fear and insecurity throughout the Roman world, influencing political dynamics and perceptions of safety in urban centers.
Sassanid Persians: The Sassanid Persians were a prominent empire that existed from 224 to 651 CE, known for its significant cultural, political, and military achievements in ancient Persia. This dynasty marked a revival of Persian culture and Zoroastrianism, acting as a major rival to the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire, especially during times of political instability and barbarian invasions.
Slavs: Slavs are a diverse group of peoples who speak Slavic languages, originally emerging in Eastern Europe and later spreading across Central and Southeast Europe. Their migration and settlement patterns played a significant role in the sociopolitical landscape of Europe, especially during times of barbarian invasions and political instability.
Suebi: The Suebi were a group of Germanic tribes known for their migrations and invasions during the late Roman Empire and early Middle Ages. They played a significant role in the period of barbarian invasions that contributed to the political instability faced by the Roman Empire, often clashing with Roman forces as they sought new territories and resources.
Theodosian Walls: The Theodosian Walls are a series of defensive stone walls that were constructed in the 5th century to protect the city of Constantinople from invasions. These fortifications were a significant architectural achievement and played a crucial role in maintaining the city's security during a period marked by barbarian invasions and political instability, showcasing the transformation of urban centers and the enduring legacy of ancient city planning.
Urban Autonomy: Urban autonomy refers to the ability of a city or municipality to govern itself, make its own decisions, and manage its own affairs without excessive interference from external authorities. This concept gained significance during periods of political instability and upheaval, where cities often had to assert their independence to survive amid chaos, like during barbarian invasions.
Urban Decay: Urban decay refers to the process where a city or urban area experiences a decline in its physical and economic structures, leading to deterioration and abandonment. This phenomenon often manifests through abandoned buildings, crumbling infrastructure, and a decrease in population, significantly affecting the social fabric and economic vitality of the area. Urban decay can be tied to various factors, such as economic downturns, shifts in population, and societal changes, all of which create a cycle that perpetuates decline.
Vandals: The Vandals were a Germanic tribe known for their invasions and settlement in North Africa during the decline of the Roman Empire. They played a significant role in the barbarian invasions that contributed to political instability and territorial fragmentation within the empire, leading to its eventual collapse.
Visigoths: The Visigoths were a branch of the Goths, a Germanic people who played a crucial role in the decline of the Western Roman Empire. Known for their invasions and settlements in various regions, they established a kingdom that lasted for several centuries, significantly influencing the cultural and political landscape of early medieval Europe.
Visigoths in Hispania: The Visigoths were a branch of the Goths, a group of East Germanic tribes, who settled in Hispania (modern-day Spain and Portugal) during the early Middle Ages, particularly after the decline of the Roman Empire. Their establishment in the region marked a significant shift in the political landscape, as they transitioned from a migratory tribe to rulers of a kingdom, significantly influencing the cultural and political development of the Iberian Peninsula.