10.3 Architectural styles and influences
7 min read•august 15, 2024
Greek and Roman architectural styles were more than just aesthetic choices. They reflected cultural values, technological advancements, and societal needs. The Greeks introduced three main orders - Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian - each with distinct features and symbolism.
Romans built on Greek foundations, adding their own innovations like arches, vaults, and domes. They also created new building types like basilicas and amphitheaters. These architectural developments shaped not only ancient cities but continue to influence modern design and urban planning.
Greek vs Roman Architecture
Architectural Orders and Styles
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- The three main architectural orders used in ancient Greek architecture are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
- Each order is characterized by distinct capitals, entablatures, and proportions
- is the simplest and most sturdy, featuring plain capitals and no base
- is more slender and elegant, with volutes on the capitals and a base
- is the most ornate, with elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves
- Roman architecture adopted and modified the Greek orders, introducing the Tuscan and Composite orders
- is a simplified version of the Doric order, with smooth columns and a simple entablature
- combines elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, with volutes and acanthus leaves on the capitals
- Roman architecture emphasized the use of arches, vaults, and domes, which were not common in Greek architecture
Temple Design and Construction
- Greek temples typically featured a rectangular plan with a colonnade surrounding a central cella (inner chamber housing the deity's statue)
- Temples were often built on a raised platform with steps leading to the entrance
- The colonnade could be on all four sides (peripteral) or just on the front (prostyle)
- Roman temples often incorporated a raised podium and a front-facing entrance
- The podium elevated the temple above the surrounding area, emphasizing its importance
- The front-facing entrance, often with a deep porch (pronaos), allowed for a more direct approach to the deity
- Greek architecture primarily used stone (mainly ) for construction, while Roman architecture employed a combination of stone, , and
- The use of concrete allowed for greater flexibility in design and the creation of larger, more complex structures
Unique Roman Building Types
- Roman architecture introduced new building types, such as basilicas, amphitheaters, and triumphal arches, which were not present in Greek cities
- Basilicas were large, rectangular public buildings used for legal proceedings, commercial activities, and social gatherings
- Amphitheaters were oval or circular structures designed for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles (Colosseum)
- Triumphal arches were freestanding, monumental structures built to commemorate military victories and honor emperors
Architectural Styles Across Time
Evolution of Greek Architecture
- Greek architecture evolved from the simple, sturdy Doric order in the Archaic period to the more ornate Ionic and Corinthian orders in the Classical and Hellenistic periods
- Archaic period (c. 800-480 BCE) temples were characterized by the use of the Doric order and a simple, bulky appearance ()
- Classical period (c. 480-323 BCE) saw the refinement of the Doric order and the increasing use of the Ionic order, with more slender proportions and elegant details ()
- Hellenistic period (c. 323-31 BCE) introduced the Corinthian order and a greater emphasis on ornament and grandeur ()
Development of Roman Architecture
- Roman architecture initially imitated Greek styles but later developed its own distinctive features
- Early Roman temples and public buildings closely followed Greek models, often employing the Ionic and Corinthian orders
- The widespread use of concrete allowed for the creation of more complex structures, such as the with its massive
- The development of the and enabled the construction of large, open interior spaces and multi-story buildings (Colosseum, )
Hellenistic Influence and Regional Variations
- The Hellenistic period saw the spread of Greek architectural influences to regions such as Asia Minor, Egypt, and the Near East, leading to the emergence of hybrid styles
- In Pergamon, the monumental Altar of Zeus combined Greek and local Anatolian elements
- In Alexandria, the Pharos lighthouse and the Library of Alexandria showcased a blend of Greek and Egyptian architectural features
- Regional variations in architectural styles emerged due to local influences, materials, and cultural preferences
- In Roman Egypt, the use of mud-brick and the incorporation of Egyptian motifs created a distinct regional style ()
- In the Near East, Persian elements such as the iwan (vaulted hall) were incorporated into Greco-Roman architecture (Palace of Ardashir I at Firuzabad)
Influences on Architectural Design
Local Materials and Construction Techniques
- The availability of local building materials, such as , marble, or , influenced the construction techniques and aesthetic qualities of Greek and Roman architecture
- The abundance of high-quality marble in Greece, particularly from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus and the island of Paros, contributed to the widespread use of this material in Greek architecture
- The Romans' use of volcanic stone ( and ) and brick, in addition to marble, allowed for greater versatility in construction and the development of new architectural forms
- Local building traditions and craftsmanship contributed to regional variations in architectural styles and construction methods
- In Roman Syria, the use of local limestone and the influence of Hellenistic and Parthian traditions led to the development of a distinct architectural style characterized by elaborate stone carving and the use of the arch and vault (Temple of Bel at Palmyra)
Climate and Environmental Factors
- Climate considerations, such as the need for natural ventilation and protection from the sun, affected the design of buildings
- Peristyle courtyards in Greek and Roman houses provided natural light and air circulation while offering a cool, shaded outdoor space ( in Pompeii)
- Colonnaded porticoes and deep overhanging eaves helped to shield building interiors from direct sunlight and rain ( in Athens)
- The orientation and layout of buildings and urban spaces were often influenced by the local climate and topography
- Greek cities were frequently built on hilltops or slopes, with the main public buildings and spaces oriented towards the south to maximize sun exposure in winter and minimize it in summer
- Roman cities in hot, arid regions, such as in North Africa, featured wide, colonnaded streets and public fountains to provide shade and cool the air
Cultural and Social Influences
- Cultural factors, including religious beliefs, social hierarchies, and political ideologies, shaped the form and function of architectural spaces in Greek and Roman cities
- Greek temples were designed to house the deity's statue and serve as a focal point for religious ceremonies and festivals, with the size and ornamentation reflecting the importance of the deity and the wealth of the city
- Roman imperial architecture, such as the in Rome, was used to convey the power and authority of the emperor and the state, with grand public spaces and monuments celebrating military victories and imperial achievements
- The integration of Greek and Roman architectural elements with indigenous styles in conquered territories led to the development of unique, hybridized architectural forms
- In Gandhara (present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan), the fusion of Greek, Roman, and Buddhist architectural traditions resulted in the creation of distinctive Buddhist monasteries and stupas adorned with Greco-Roman decorative elements (Corinthian capitals, acanthus leaves)
Impact of Greek and Roman Innovations
Influence on Western Architecture
- The use of the Greek orders and the principles of , , and harmony influenced architectural design in the Western world for centuries
- Renaissance architects, such as Filippo Brunelleschi and Andrea Palladio, studied and adapted Greek and Roman architectural principles in their designs for churches, palaces, and villas ( of San Lorenzo in Florence, Villa Rotonda near Vicenza)
- Neoclassical architecture of the 18th and 19th centuries drew heavily on Greek and Roman models, employing the classical orders and other decorative elements in the design of public buildings, monuments, and residences (US Capitol Building, British Museum)
Advancements in Construction Techniques
- Roman innovations in construction techniques, such as the use of concrete and the development of the arch and vault, enabled the creation of large-scale, multi-story structures that transformed urban landscapes
- The use of concrete, made from a mixture of lime, volcanic ash, and aggregate, allowed for the construction of stronger, more durable buildings and the spanning of large interior spaces (Pantheon, Basilica of Maxentius)
- The arch and vault, used in combination with concrete, enabled the creation of complex, multi-story structures and the development of new architectural forms, such as the dome and the groin vault (Baths of Diocletian, Basilica Nova)
Lasting Impact on Urban Planning
- Greek and Roman principles of urban planning, such as the grid system and the integration of public spaces and monuments, were adopted and adapted by subsequent civilizations, shaping the layout and character of cities worldwide
- The , used in Greek city planning, featured a regular grid of streets intersecting at right angles, with public spaces and important buildings located at key intersections (, )
- Roman cities often incorporated a central forum surrounded by important public buildings, such as temples, basilicas, and marketplaces, with a grid of streets radiating outward (Pompeii, Timgad)
- The legacy of Greek and Roman urban planning can be seen in the layout of many modern cities, particularly in Europe and the Americas, where the grid system and the integration of public spaces and monuments remain influential (, )
Key Terms to Review (41)
Altar of Zeus at Pergamon: The Altar of Zeus at Pergamon is a monumental structure built in the late 2nd century BCE, dedicated to the Greek god Zeus. This impressive altar is renowned for its grand architectural design and intricate sculptural reliefs, which depict the battle between the gods and giants, symbolizing the triumph of order over chaos. It reflects the Hellenistic style, showcasing the artistic influences of the period, particularly through its use of dramatic compositions and elaborate decorations.
Amphitheater: An amphitheater is a freestanding, open-air structure characterized by its oval or circular shape, tiered seating, and a central arena used for various forms of entertainment, such as gladiatorial games, theatrical performances, and public events. This architectural form reflects the social and cultural priorities of ancient civilizations, particularly in their urban settings, showcasing the importance of communal entertainment and civic engagement.
Apollodorus of Damascus: Apollodorus of Damascus was a prominent Greek architect and engineer active in the early 2nd century AD, best known for his innovative designs and contributions to Roman architecture under Emperor Trajan. His works exemplify the blend of Greek architectural principles with Roman engineering, significantly influencing urban design and monumental structures during the empire's height.
Arch: An arch is a structural element that spans an opening and supports weight, typically constructed from wedge-shaped blocks called voussoirs. This architectural innovation allowed for the creation of larger and more stable structures, significantly impacting city planning and the aesthetics of urban environments in ancient times.
Basilica: A basilica is a large and important building in ancient Roman architecture, typically used for public administration, legal proceedings, and various civic activities. This architectural form was characterized by its long nave, high ceilings, and aisles, often adorned with elaborate decorations, serving as a model for later Christian churches and influencing urban design.
Baths of Caracalla: The Baths of Caracalla were a large public bathing complex in ancient Rome, constructed between AD 212 and 216 under Emperor Caracalla. This monumental structure exemplifies the Roman emphasis on social life, hygiene, and architectural innovation, reflecting key features of urban planning in ancient cities.
Brick: Brick is a building material made from fired clay, shaped into rectangular blocks, and used extensively in construction. It became a fundamental element in Roman architecture, symbolizing durability and strength, while also enabling the creation of complex structures that defined Roman cities and influenced architectural styles across different regions.
Column: A column is a vertical structural element that supports a building or structure, often serving both a functional and decorative purpose. In ancient architecture, columns were crucial for creating the majestic temples and public buildings that characterized Greek and Roman cities, reflecting their cultural values and engineering innovations. The design and style of columns also symbolize the artistic trends and architectural advancements of their respective periods.
Composite Order: The Composite Order is a classical architectural style that combines elements of both the Corinthian and Ionic orders, characterized by its elaborate capitals adorned with acanthus leaves and scrolls. This style emerged during the Roman period and reflects the fusion of different cultural influences in architecture, showcasing a blend of elegance and grandeur.
Concrete: Concrete is a composite material made from a mixture of cement, water, aggregates, and sometimes additives, which hardens into a strong, durable substance used in construction. This versatile material played a crucial role in the development of urban architecture and infrastructure, allowing for innovative designs and structures that significantly impacted city planning and functionality across different cultures.
Corinthian Order: The Corinthian Order is one of the classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by its ornate column design featuring a slender profile, elaborate acanthus leaf decorations, and a bell-shaped capital. This style reflects the artistic achievements of the Greeks and later influenced Roman architecture, showcasing its significance in urban design and aesthetic appeal.
Dome: A dome is a rounded architectural feature that often forms the roof of a building, creating a circular or elliptical shape that can cover large spaces without internal supports. Domes symbolize the heavens and are significant in various architectural styles, showcasing advancements in engineering and design throughout history.
Doric Order: The Doric Order is one of the classical orders of ancient Greek architecture characterized by its sturdy and simplistic columns, which have a fluted shaft and no base. It reflects the values of strength and austerity, making it a prominent feature in the temples and public buildings of archaic and classical Greece.
Etruscan influence: Etruscan influence refers to the cultural, artistic, and architectural impact of the Etruscan civilization on the development of Roman society. This influence is particularly evident in architectural styles, religious practices, and urban planning, which were integrated into Roman culture and contributed to the establishment of a distinctly Roman identity.
Forum of Trajan: The Forum of Trajan was an expansive public space in ancient Rome, built during the early 2nd century AD, which served as a monumental complex for civic, commercial, and social activities. Designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus, it showcased the advanced architectural styles of the time, including the use of concrete and decorative elements, reflecting the influence of Hellenistic and Roman design principles.
Hellenistic Influence: Hellenistic influence refers to the cultural, artistic, and intellectual impact that arose from the spread of Greek culture following the conquests of Alexander the Great. This period saw the blending of Greek elements with local traditions across a vast area, leading to significant changes in city planning, governance, art, and architecture that shaped various regions well beyond Greece itself.
Hippodamian grid system: The hippodamian grid system is an urban planning layout that organizes a city in a rectangular grid pattern, named after the ancient Greek architect Hippodamus of Miletus. This method allowed for efficient land division, enhancing traffic flow and accessibility, while facilitating the integration of public spaces and buildings. The design reflects ideals of order and rationality, significantly influencing the development of many cities in both ancient Greece and later Roman times.
House of the Vettii: The House of the Vettii is a well-preserved Roman house located in Pompeii, notable for its elaborate frescoes and architectural features that showcase the wealth and status of its owners. This domus exemplifies the transition between the older styles of Roman domestic architecture and the more opulent designs that emerged during the late Republic and early Empire, reflecting both Greek and Roman influences.
Ictinus: Ictinus was a prominent ancient Greek architect, best known for his role in designing the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens. His work exemplifies the sophisticated architectural techniques and aesthetic principles that characterized classical Greek architecture, particularly in the context of temples and sanctuaries that played a crucial role in urban life.
Ionic Order: Ionic order is one of the classical orders of ancient Greek architecture, characterized by its slender columns, scroll-like volutes on the capital, and a decorative frieze. This architectural style not only influenced the aesthetics of sacred and public buildings in Greece but also extended its impact on Roman urban design and later architectural movements, demonstrating its lasting legacy in urban art and architecture.
Limestone: Limestone is a sedimentary rock primarily composed of calcium carbonate, often formed from the skeletal fragments of marine organisms. Its versatile nature makes it an important material in various architectural styles and influences, especially in ancient Greek and Roman structures where it was used for its durability and ease of carving.
Marble: Marble is a metamorphic rock composed primarily of calcite or dolomite, known for its beauty and durability. In ancient Greek and Roman contexts, marble was a favored material for public monuments, sculptures, and decorative elements in both architecture and domestic settings due to its aesthetic appeal and ability to be polished to a high sheen.
Miletus: Miletus was an ancient Greek city located on the western coast of Asia Minor, known for its rich history as a major center of trade, philosophy, and science. It flourished from the 8th century BCE and played a key role in the development of urban planning and architectural styles that influenced later Greek and Roman cities.
New York City: New York City is a major cultural and economic hub located on the eastern coast of the United States, known for its iconic skyline and diverse architectural styles. The city serves as a prime example of urban planning and development, showcasing influences from various architectural movements that reflect its dynamic history and multicultural population.
Pantheon: A pantheon refers to all the gods and goddesses of a particular religion or culture, often depicted in a temple or as part of a city's religious framework. In ancient Greek and Roman cities, the pantheon was integral to civic life, influencing architecture, public spaces, and cultural practices, as citizens honored their deities in various ways, showcasing their beliefs and values.
Parthenon: The Parthenon is a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, built on the Acropolis of Athens during the height of the Athenian Empire in the 5th century BCE. It stands as a symbol of the cultural and political achievements of ancient Greece and showcases the architectural and artistic innovations of its time.
Pediment: A pediment is a triangular upper part of a building, typically found above the horizontal structure known as the entablature, often used in classical architecture. This architectural feature is commonly seen in temples and public buildings, serving both a decorative and structural purpose, while also playing a significant role in the overall design and aesthetic of Greek and Roman architecture.
Peperino: Peperino is a type of volcanic stone that was widely used in ancient Roman architecture, particularly as a building material for walls and pavements. This durable stone, which has a greyish-green color and a distinctive porous texture, played a significant role in defining the aesthetic and structural qualities of various Roman structures. Its use is closely linked to the architectural innovations of the time, showcasing the Romans' ability to adapt local materials to create enduring designs.
Priene: Priene is an ancient Greek city located in Ionia, known for its remarkable urban planning and architecture that exemplifies the principles of Greek city design during the Hellenistic period. The city is notable for its grid layout, which was influenced by Hippodamus of Miletus, and features prominent structures like the Temple of Athena and the theater, reflecting advancements in city planning and the blending of various architectural styles.
Proportion: Proportion in architecture refers to the relationship between different elements of a structure in terms of size and scale. It plays a crucial role in achieving balance, harmony, and aesthetic appeal, as well as guiding the viewer's perception of the overall design. The effective use of proportion can create a sense of rhythm and unity within a building, influencing how various architectural styles are interpreted and experienced.
Stoa of Attalos: The Stoa of Attalos is a reconstructed ancient portico located in Athens, originally built in the 2nd century BCE by King Attalos II of Pergamon. This architectural structure is significant as it exemplifies the classical Greek style of stoa, which served as a covered walkway or portico for social, commercial, and public gatherings. The Stoa reflects the influence of Hellenistic architecture on urban design, showcasing how public spaces were integral to the daily life and culture of ancient Athens.
Symmetry: Symmetry refers to a balanced and proportionate arrangement of elements within a design, where one side mirrors the other. In architecture and urban planning, this concept is essential for creating aesthetically pleasing structures and layouts, contributing to harmony and order in the built environment. Symmetry is particularly significant in Hellenistic city planning, where it influenced street layouts, building designs, and public spaces, as well as in the evolution of architectural styles that emphasize balance and proportion.
Temple of Hera at Olympia: The Temple of Hera at Olympia is an ancient Greek temple dedicated to Hera, the wife of Zeus, and is one of the earliest examples of Doric architecture. This temple served as a focal point in the sanctuary of Olympia, where the Olympic Games were held, reflecting the significance of both religion and athletic competition in ancient Greek culture. Its construction exemplifies the advancements in city planning and architectural styles during the Archaic period.
Temple of Isis at Philae: The Temple of Isis at Philae is an ancient Egyptian temple complex dedicated to the goddess Isis, located on Philae Island in the Nile River. This temple is significant for its rich architectural style and intricate carvings, showcasing the blend of Pharaonic traditions and later Greco-Roman influences, reflecting the evolving religious practices during its active use from the 3rd century BCE to the 6th century CE.
Timgad: Timgad is an ancient Roman city located in present-day Algeria, founded around 100 AD by Emperor Trajan. It serves as a prime example of Roman urban planning and architecture, showcasing the spread of Roman culture into the provinces through its grid layout, public buildings, and advanced infrastructure.
Triumphal arch: A triumphal arch is a monumental structure built to commemorate a significant event, typically a military victory, and to honor important figures, often emperors. These arches served both as gateways and as symbols of power and achievement, frequently adorned with sculptures, inscriptions, and reliefs that conveyed messages of triumph and glory.
Tufa: Tufa is a porous, calcium carbonate rock that forms through the precipitation of calcium and carbonate ions in freshwater environments, often seen around springs and lakes. Its lightweight nature and easy workability made it a popular building material in ancient architecture, particularly in the construction of domestic buildings and public structures in Roman cities, influencing their overall architectural styles and aesthetics.
Tuscan Order: The Tuscan Order is a style of classical architecture that originated in ancient Italy, characterized by its simplicity and sturdiness. It features unadorned columns with a smooth shaft, a simple base and capital, and a plain entablature. This architectural style reflects the Roman emphasis on functionality and durability, showcasing the development of Roman cities through its widespread use in public buildings and civic structures.
Vault: A vault is an architectural structure that forms a roof or ceiling by means of arching, typically constructed from stone, brick, or concrete. This design allows for the creation of expansive spaces and often contributes to the overall aesthetic of buildings. Vaults were crucial in advancing architectural techniques, enabling larger interiors and inspiring innovative urban designs during various historical periods.
Volcanic stone: Volcanic stone refers to rock formed from the solidification of molten lava during volcanic eruptions. This type of stone, including basalt and pumice, played a significant role in construction and architecture, especially in ancient civilizations where its durability and unique textures influenced various architectural styles and building techniques.
Washington D.C.: Washington D.C. is the capital of the United States and a significant hub for government and political activities, established as a planned city in the late 18th century. The architectural landscape of D.C. is heavily influenced by classical styles, with numerous buildings that reflect both American ideals and historical European designs, showcasing a blend of neoclassical and modern architectural movements.