💰Federal Income Tax Accounting Unit 3 – Tax Determination and Filing Status

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Gross income encompasses all income from whatever source derived, unless specifically excluded by law
• Taxable income calculated by subtracting deductions from gross income determines the amount subject to federal income tax
• Tax liability refers to the total amount of tax owed by a taxpayer based on their taxable income and applicable tax rates
• Marginal tax rate represents the tax rate applied to the last dollar of taxable income within a specific tax bracket
• Effective tax rate calculated as total tax liability divided by taxable income provides an overall measure of tax burden
• Progressive tax system imposes higher tax rates on higher levels of income, with rates increasing as income rises
  • For example, in 2021, the lowest tax bracket had a 10% rate, while the highest bracket had a 37% rate
• Tax credits directly reduce tax liability dollar-for-dollar, while deductions reduce taxable income before calculating tax liability

Types of Taxpayers and Filing Statuses

• Individuals required to file a federal income tax return based on income thresholds, which vary by filing status and age
• Single filing status applies to unmarried taxpayers or those considered unmarried on the last day of the tax year
• Married Filing Jointly (MFJ) allows married couples to combine their incomes and deductions on a single tax return
  • Generally results in a lower overall tax liability compared to filing separately
• Married Filing Separately (MFS) requires each spouse to file their own tax return, reporting only their individual income and deductions
  • May be advantageous in certain situations (high medical expenses or student loan interest deductions)
• Head of Household (HOH) available to unmarried taxpayers who pay more than half the cost of maintaining a home for a qualifying person
  • Provides a higher standard deduction and more favorable tax brackets compared to single filing status
• Qualifying Widow(er) allows a taxpayer whose spouse died during the tax year to use the MFJ filing status for that year and the following two years, subject to certain conditions

Income Inclusions and Exclusions

• Wages, salaries, tips, and other earned income included in gross income and subject to federal income tax
• Interest income from savings accounts, certificates of deposit (CDs), and bonds generally taxable in the year received
  • Exception: Interest from municipal bonds exempt from federal income tax
• Dividend income from stocks and mutual funds included in gross income and subject to tax at ordinary income rates or preferential long-term capital gains rates, depending on the type of dividend
• Capital gains and losses from the sale of assets (stocks, bonds, real estate) included in taxable income
  • Short-term gains taxed at ordinary income rates, while long-term gains taxed at preferential rates (0%, 15%, or 20%)
• Rental income from real estate included in gross income, but expenses related to the rental property (mortgage interest, property taxes, repairs) deductible
• Alimony payments received pursuant to a divorce agreement executed before 2019 included in the recipient's gross income
  • For agreements executed after December 31, 2018, alimony payments are not included in the recipient's income or deductible by the payer
• Social Security benefits may be partially taxable depending on the taxpayer's income level and filing status
• Gifts and inheritances generally excluded from the recipient's gross income, but the giver may be subject to gift or estate taxes

Deductions and Credits

• Standard deduction provides a flat dollar amount that taxpayers can subtract from their gross income, with the amount varying based on filing status
  • In 2021, the standard deduction was $12,550 for single filers and$25,100 for married couples filing jointly
• Itemized deductions allow taxpayers to deduct specific expenses (mortgage interest, state and local taxes, charitable contributions) from their gross income
  • Taxpayers choose between itemizing or taking the standard deduction, whichever results in a lower tax liability
• Mortgage interest deduction allows homeowners to deduct interest paid on a mortgage for a primary or secondary residence, subject to limits based on the loan amount and date of origination
• State and local tax (SALT) deduction allows taxpayers to deduct state and local income, sales, and property taxes, up to a maximum of $10,000 per year
• Charitable contribution deduction allows taxpayers to deduct donations to qualified organizations, subject to limitations based on the type of donation and the taxpayer's income
• Child Tax Credit provides a credit of up to $2,000 per qualifying child under age 17, with a portion of the credit refundable for lower-income taxpayers
• Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) provides a refundable credit for low to moderate-income working individuals and families, with the amount based on income, filing status, and number of children
• Education tax credits, such as the American Opportunity Credit and Lifetime Learning Credit, help offset the cost of higher education by reducing tax liability dollar-for-dollar

Tax Calculation Process

• Determine gross income by adding all taxable income sources and applying any applicable exclusions
• Subtract deductions (standard or itemized) from gross income to calculate adjusted gross income (AGI)
• Subtract any additional deductions (QBI deduction, IRA contributions) from AGI to determine taxable income
• Apply the appropriate tax rate schedule based on filing status and taxable income to calculate tax liability
  • Tax rate schedules are divided into brackets, with each bracket subject to a different marginal tax rate
• Subtract tax credits (Child Tax Credit, EITC, education credits) from tax liability to determine the final amount owed or refund due
• Compare the calculated tax liability to the amount of taxes withheld or estimated tax payments made throughout the year
  • If the liability exceeds payments, the taxpayer owes the difference; if payments exceed the liability, the taxpayer is due a refund
• Report the final tax liability, payments, and any amount owed or refund due on the appropriate tax return (Form 1040) and submit it to the IRS by the filing deadline (typically April 15)

Common Tax Forms and Schedules

• Form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return, is the primary form used by individual taxpayers to report their income, deductions, credits, and calculate their tax liability
• Schedule A, Itemized Deductions, used by taxpayers who choose to itemize deductions instead of taking the standard deduction
  • Includes deductions for mortgage interest, state and local taxes, charitable contributions, and medical expenses
• Schedule B, Interest and Ordinary Dividends, used to report interest and dividend income, as well as any foreign bank accounts or trusts
• Schedule C, Profit or Loss from Business, used by self-employed individuals and sole proprietors to report income and expenses related to their business activities
• Schedule D, Capital Gains and Losses, used to report gains and losses from the sale of capital assets, such as stocks, bonds, and real estate
• Schedule E, Supplemental Income and Loss, used to report income and expenses from rental properties, partnerships, S corporations, estates, and trusts
• Schedule SE, Self-Employment Tax, used to calculate the Social Security and Medicare taxes owed by self-employed individuals on their net earnings
• Form W-2, Wage and Tax Statement, provided by employers to report an employee's annual wages and the amount of taxes withheld throughout the year
• Form 1099 series (1099-INT, 1099-DIV, 1099-MISC) used to report various types of income (interest, dividends, independent contractor payments) paid to taxpayers during the year

Special Considerations and Edge Cases

• Alternative Minimum Tax (AMT) is a parallel tax system designed to ensure that high-income taxpayers pay a minimum amount of tax, regardless of deductions and credits
  • Taxpayers must calculate their tax liability under both the regular tax system and the AMT, and pay the higher of the two amounts
• Kiddie Tax applies to unearned income (interest, dividends, capital gains) of children under age 19 (or 24 for full-time students) above a certain threshold
  • Unearned income above the threshold taxed at the parent's marginal tax rate to prevent income shifting strategies
• Passive activity loss rules limit the ability of taxpayers to deduct losses from passive investments (rental properties, limited partnerships) against other types of income
  • Passive losses can only be deducted against passive income, with excess losses carried forward to future years
• Net operating loss (NOL) carryforwards allow taxpayers to apply business losses from one year to offset taxable income in future years, providing a form of income averaging
• Installment sales allow taxpayers to spread the gain from the sale of an asset over multiple tax years, potentially reducing the overall tax liability
  • Gain is recognized proportionally as payments are received, rather than entirely in the year of sale
• Like-kind exchanges (Section 1031) allow taxpayers to defer recognition of gain on the exchange of similar business or investment properties
  • Gain is deferred until the replacement property is ultimately sold, provided certain conditions are met

Practical Applications and Examples

• Example 1: Sarah, a single taxpayer, earns $50,000 in wages and$5,000 in interest income. She claims the standard deduction of $12,550. Her taxable income is$42,450 ($50,000 +$5,000 - $12,550), resulting in a tax liability of$5,238 based on the 2021 tax rate schedule.
• Example 2: Mark and Emily, a married couple, have a combined income of $120,000. They itemize deductions, claiming$10,000 in state and local taxes, $8,000 in mortgage interest, and$2,000 in charitable contributions. Their taxable income is $100,000 ($120,000 - $20,000), resulting in a tax liability of$13,734 based on the 2021 MFJ tax rate schedule.
• Example 3: John, a self-employed consultant, earns $80,000 in net profit from his business. He must pay self-employment tax (Social Security and Medicare) on his net earnings, in addition to income tax. His self-employment tax is$11,304 (15.3% of $73,920, which is$80,000 reduced by 7.65%), and his income tax liability is $8,444, assuming he claims the standard deduction.
• Example 4: Lisa, a single mother with two children, earns $35,000 per year. She claims the standard deduction and qualifies for the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) and Child Tax Credit (CTC). Her EITC is$4,686, and her CTC is $4,000 ($2,000 per child). These credits reduce her tax liability from $1,410 to zero, and she receives a refundable credit of$7,276 ($4,686 +$2,590 refundable portion of CTC).
• Example 5: Robert sells a rental property he has owned for five years for $300,000. His basis in the property (original cost plus improvements) is$200,000, resulting in a capital gain of $100,000. As he held the property for more than one year, the gain is taxed at the preferential long-term capital gains rate of 15$15,000 on the sale.