24.3 Brexit: causes, process, and consequences for European integration
4 min read•august 9, 2024
Brexit shook the foundations of European integration. The UK's 2016 referendum to leave the EU sparked years of complex negotiations, political turmoil, and economic uncertainty.
The process revealed deep divisions within British society and challenged the EU's unity. Brexit's consequences continue to unfold, impacting trade, politics, and the future of European cooperation.
The Brexit Referendum and Negotiation Process
The 2016 Referendum and Triggering Article 50
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- 2016 Brexit referendum held on June 23rd resulted in 51.9% voting to leave the EU
- resigned as Prime Minister following the referendum result
- became Prime Minister in July 2016, pledging to implement Brexit
- of the Lisbon Treaty triggered on March 29, 2017, starting a two-year countdown for the UK to leave the EU
- Article 50 outlines the process for a member state to withdraw from the EU (includes notification of intention, negotiation period, and terms of withdrawal)
Negotiation Challenges and Leadership Changes
- Theresa May struggled to negotiate a Brexit deal acceptable to Parliament
- May's proposed rejected three times by MPs between January and March 2019
- Brexit deadline extended multiple times due to lack of agreement
- Theresa May resigned in June 2019 after failing to pass her Brexit deal
- became Prime Minister in July 2019, promising to deliver Brexit "do or die"
- Johnson negotiated a revised Withdrawal Agreement with the EU in October 2019
- UK general election in December 2019 resulted in a large Conservative majority, paving the way for Brexit
The Withdrawal Agreement and UK's Exit
- Withdrawal Agreement finalized and ratified by both UK and EU parliaments in January 2020
- UK officially left the EU on January 31, 2020, entering a until December 31, 2020
- Withdrawal Agreement covered key issues (citizens' rights, financial settlement, )
- Transition period maintained most EU rules while allowing time for negotiations on future relationship
- EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement reached on December 24, 2020, just days before the transition period ended
Key Issues in the Brexit Negotiations
The Irish Border and Northern Ireland Protocol
- Northern Ireland Protocol designed to prevent a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland
- Protocol keeps Northern Ireland aligned with some EU single market rules
- Creates a de facto customs border in the Irish Sea between Great Britain and Northern Ireland
- Controversial among unionists in Northern Ireland who feel it threatens their place in the UK
- Ongoing disputes over implementation and calls for renegotiation of the Protocol
Single Market and Customs Union Access
- UK's decision to leave both the EU single market and customs union central to Brexit negotiations
- Single market allows free movement of goods, services, capital, and people within the EU
- Customs union eliminates internal tariffs and imposes common external tariffs
- Leaving both structures impacts UK-EU trade (introduces customs checks, regulatory divergence)
- UK sought to maintain some benefits while regaining control over laws, borders, and trade policy
Legal Jurisdiction and Freedom of Movement
- European Court of Justice (ECJ) jurisdiction in the UK a key issue in Brexit negotiations
- UK government aimed to end ECJ's direct jurisdiction, seen as a matter of sovereignty
- Compromise reached in some areas (ECJ retains role in Northern Ireland Protocol disputes)
- Freedom of movement ended between UK and EU as part of Brexit
- New points-based immigration system introduced in the UK for EU and non-EU citizens alike
- Changes to immigration policy impact labor markets, education, and cultural exchange
Consequences of Brexit
Economic and Trade Impacts
- EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement established new trading relationship
- Agreement provides for zero tariffs and zero quotas on goods meeting rules of origin requirements
- Non-tariff barriers increased (customs declarations, regulatory checks)
- UK financial services sector lost automatic passporting rights to EU markets
- Short-term economic disruption (supply chain issues, increased bureaucracy for businesses)
- Long-term economic effects still unfolding (changes in foreign direct investment, trade patterns)
Political and Constitutional Ramifications
- Scottish independence movement gained momentum following Brexit
- Scotland voted 62% to remain in the EU in the 2016 referendum
- Scottish National Party calling for a second independence referendum
- Brexit highlighted tensions in the UK's devolution settlement
- Northern Ireland's unique position under the Protocol raised questions about its long-term constitutional status
- Debates over the future of the United Kingdom as a political union intensified
Broader European Integration Dynamics
- Brexit marked the first time a member state left the EU, challenging the idea of ever-closer union
- Sparked debates in other EU countries about their relationship with the bloc
- EU unity strengthened in some ways during Brexit negotiations
- Brexit led to reforms and reflections on the future of European integration
- Shift in balance of power within the EU (France and Germany's influence potentially increased)
- UK's global influence and "soft power" potentially diminished outside the EU framework
Key Terms to Review (20)
Anti-brexit: Anti-Brexit refers to the political and social movement opposing the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, which was formally initiated in 2016 after a public referendum. This movement is rooted in concerns about the potential negative consequences of Brexit for the UK, including economic uncertainty, loss of access to European markets, and threats to the rights of EU citizens living in the UK. Anti-Brexit supporters advocate for remaining in the EU or minimizing the impact of Brexit on various sectors.
Article 50: Article 50 is a provision in the Treaty on European Union that outlines the process for a member state to withdraw from the European Union. It establishes a framework for negotiations between the departing state and the EU regarding the terms of withdrawal, including the future relationship between both parties. This article became significant during Brexit, marking the formal initiation of the UK's exit from the EU and highlighting tensions regarding sovereignty and integration within Europe.
Boris Johnson: Boris Johnson is a British politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from July 2019 to September 2022. He played a crucial role in the Brexit process, advocating for the UK's departure from the European Union and influencing the terms of this separation, which had significant implications for European integration.
Brexit fatigue: Brexit fatigue refers to the exhaustion and disillusionment experienced by the British public and political entities as the protracted process of the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union unfolded. This term encapsulates the growing frustration with the seemingly endless negotiations, political turmoil, and economic uncertainty that have characterized Brexit since the 2016 referendum, impacting public opinion and political discourse.
David Cameron: David Cameron is a British politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2010 to 2016. He was a key figure in the lead-up to the Brexit referendum, advocating for the UK's continued membership in the European Union while also facing significant internal party pressures and public opinion that favored leaving. His leadership during this tumultuous period had lasting implications for both the UK and European integration.
Disintegration: Disintegration refers to the process of breaking apart or the gradual decline of a unified system into smaller, often conflicting parts. In the context of European integration, disintegration highlights the challenges faced by member states when they choose to withdraw from collective arrangements, leading to political, economic, and social fragmentation.
Economic sovereignty: Economic sovereignty refers to the ability of a state to independently control its economic policies, resources, and economic decision-making without external interference. This concept is crucial in understanding the tensions between national interests and supranational governance, especially in the context of economic unions and trade agreements.
EU reforms: EU reforms refer to the various changes and adjustments made within the European Union's political, economic, and institutional structures to enhance efficiency, accountability, and integration among member states. These reforms aim to address challenges such as economic disparities, governance issues, and the need for a more unified response to global challenges, particularly in light of events like Brexit.
Identity politics: Identity politics refers to political positions and movements that are based on the interests and perspectives of social groups defined by aspects such as race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and other identity markers. This approach emphasizes the importance of these identities in shaping individuals' experiences and political perspectives, often seeking to address historical injustices and inequalities faced by marginalized groups.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often in opposition to foreign influence or control. It fosters a sense of unity and identity among people who share common traits, such as language, culture, and history, and it often motivates movements for self-determination and independence.
Northern Ireland Protocol: The Northern Ireland Protocol is a key component of the Brexit agreement that aims to manage the unique situation of Northern Ireland post-Brexit, ensuring there is no hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. This protocol establishes special arrangements for Northern Ireland, allowing it to remain aligned with certain EU regulations while still being part of the United Kingdom, which is crucial for maintaining peace and stability in the region.
Polarization: Polarization refers to the division of society into distinct and opposing groups, often characterized by sharply contrasting beliefs and attitudes. In the context of Brexit, polarization manifests in the split between those who support leaving the European Union and those who advocate for remaining, highlighting deep-seated cultural, economic, and political differences within the UK and across Europe.
Populism: Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests and concerns of the common people, often by contrasting them against the elite or establishment. It tends to emphasize a charismatic leader who claims to have a direct connection with the populace and often simplifies complex political issues into more relatable terms. In the context of recent political movements, populism has significantly influenced events like Brexit, where leaders used populist rhetoric to rally support by appealing to national identity and sovereignty.
Pro-Brexit: Pro-Brexit refers to the political stance and movement advocating for the United Kingdom's exit from the European Union, commonly known as Brexit. This perspective emphasizes national sovereignty, control over immigration, and the ability to make independent trade agreements without EU restrictions. The pro-Brexit sentiment significantly influenced political debates and campaigns leading up to the 2016 referendum, shaping the future relationship between the UK and Europe.
Referendum of 2016: The referendum of 2016 was a nationwide vote in the United Kingdom held on June 23, where citizens were asked whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union or leave it. The outcome, with 51.9% voting to leave, initiated a significant political and economic process known as Brexit, leading to extensive discussions about sovereignty, immigration, and the future of European integration.
Sovereignty debate: The sovereignty debate revolves around the question of who holds ultimate authority and power within a political system, especially in the context of international agreements and regional integration. This debate has intensified with events like Brexit, as it raises concerns over the balance between national governance and the ceding of powers to supranational entities, affecting how nations perceive their autonomy and control over domestic matters.
Theresa May: Theresa May is a British politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from July 2016 to July 2019, leading the country during a critical period marked by Brexit negotiations. Her leadership was defined by her efforts to navigate the complexities of the UK's exit from the European Union, addressing both domestic and international challenges while attempting to maintain party unity and public support.
Trade agreements: Trade agreements are formal agreements between countries that outline the rules and regulations for trade between them. These agreements aim to facilitate trade by reducing tariffs, import quotas, and other trade barriers, ultimately promoting economic cooperation and integration among the participating nations.
Transition Period: The transition period refers to the timeframe during which the United Kingdom and the European Union negotiated the terms of their relationship following Brexit, which took effect on January 31, 2020. This period was essential for both sides to establish new agreements on trade, security, and other critical areas while minimizing disruption and providing time for adjustments.
Withdrawal agreement: A withdrawal agreement is a legally binding document that outlines the terms and conditions under which a country exits a political union or organization, such as the European Union (EU). In the context of Brexit, the withdrawal agreement specifically refers to the deal between the UK and the EU that governs the UK's departure from the EU, addressing key issues like citizens' rights, financial settlements, and the Northern Ireland border. This agreement plays a crucial role in shaping future relations between the UK and the EU.