🏰European History – 1000 to 1500 Unit 1 – The Middle Ages: Periods and Sources

Key Time Periods

• Early Middle Ages (500-1000) began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire transitioned into the feudal system
• High Middle Ages (1000-1300) experienced population growth, agricultural and technological advancements, and the rise of towns and trade
  • Crusades (1095-1291) aimed to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule had significant cultural, economic, and political impacts
• Late Middle Ages (1300-1500) marked by famines, plagues (Black Death), and social and political upheavals
  • Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) between England and France over territorial disputes and dynastic claims
• Renaissance (14th-17th centuries) began in Italy spread throughout Europe, characterized by a revival of classical learning and arts

Major Historical Events

• Norman Conquest of England (1066) led by William the Conqueror, establishing Norman rule and feudalism
• Magna Carta (1215) signed by King John of England, limiting the powers of the monarchy and establishing the principle of the rule of law
  • Laid the foundation for the development of constitutional law and parliamentary democracy
• Fall of Constantinople (1453) to the Ottoman Empire marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and the Middle Ages
• Invention of the printing press (c. 1440) by Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the dissemination of knowledge and ideas
  • Facilitated the spread of the Renaissance, Reformation, and scientific advancements
• Reconquista (718-1492) gradual reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Christian kingdoms from Muslim rule
  • Completed with the fall of Granada in 1492, the same year Christopher Columbus reached the Americas

Power Structures and Governance

• Feudalism dominant political and social system based on the exchange of land for military service and loyalty
  • Hierarchy: king, nobles, knights, and peasants
  • Manorialism agricultural system within feudalism, with lords owning the land and serfs working it
• Monarchy primary form of government, with kings and queens ruling over territories and vassals
  • Divine right of kings concept that monarchs derived their authority from God, not the people
• Papacy spiritual and temporal authority of the Pope, who wielded significant influence over European politics
  • Investiture Controversy (11th-12th centuries) power struggle between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor over the appointment of church officials
• Rise of parliaments and representative assemblies (e.g., English Parliament, French Estates-General) gradually limited the power of monarchs

Social and Economic Life

• Agriculture the foundation of the medieval economy, with the majority of the population engaged in farming
  • Three-field system crop rotation method that increased agricultural productivity
• Guild system regulated the production and trade of goods in towns and cities
  • Guilds controlled the quality of products, set prices, and oversaw the training of apprentices
• Commercial revolution (11th-13th centuries) expansion of trade and commerce, facilitated by the growth of towns, markets, and banking
  • Hanseatic League a powerful trading confederation of northern European cities
• Social hierarchy divided society into distinct classes (nobility, clergy, and commoners) with limited social mobility
  • Chivalry code of conduct for knights, emphasizing bravery, loyalty, and courtly love

Cultural and Artistic Developments

• Romanesque art and architecture (10th-12th centuries) characterized by thick walls, rounded arches, and elaborate sculptures
  • Examples: Leaning Tower of Pisa, Durham Cathedral
• Gothic art and architecture (12th-16th centuries) featured pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and large windows
  • Examples: Notre-Dame Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral
• Troubadours and trouvères poets and musicians who composed and performed love songs and epic poems
  • Contributed to the development of vernacular literature and the concept of courtly love
• Illuminated manuscripts handwritten books with intricate illustrations and decorations
  • Examples: Book of Kells, Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
• Universities emerged as centers of learning and scholarship (Bologna, Paris, Oxford)
  • Scholasticism dominant medieval philosophy that sought to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy

Religious Influences

• Catholic Church the dominant religious institution, wielding significant spiritual and temporal power
  • Monasticism the practice of renouncing worldly pursuits to dedicate oneself to spiritual work
    • Benedictine Rule a set of guidelines for monastic life, emphasizing prayer, work, and study
• Crusades a series of military campaigns aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land from Muslim rule
  • Increased contact between Europe and the Islamic world, facilitating cultural and technological exchange
• Heretical movements (Cathars, Waldensians) challenged the authority and teachings of the Catholic Church
  • Inquisition established to combat heresy and enforce religious orthodoxy
• Mendicant orders (Franciscans, Dominicans) emphasized poverty, preaching, and service to the poor
  • Played a crucial role in the spread of education and the fight against heresy
• Great Schism (1378-1417) a period of division within the Catholic Church, with rival popes in Rome and Avignon
  • Resolved by the Council of Constance (1414-1418), which reaffirmed the authority of the Pope and condemned the teachings of John Wycliffe and Jan Hus

Important Historical Figures

• Charlemagne (742-814) King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, known for his military conquests and cultural reforms
  • Carolingian Renaissance a period of cultural and intellectual revival during Charlemagne's reign
• William the Conqueror (c. 1028-1087) Norman duke who conquered England in 1066, establishing Norman rule and feudalism
• Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015-1085) reformed the Church and asserted papal authority over secular rulers
  • Instigated the Investiture Controversy with Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV
• Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) influential Dominican friar and theologian, known for his synthesis of Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy
  • Summa Theologica his most famous work, a comprehensive treatise on theology and philosophy
• Joan of Arc (c. 1412-1431) French peasant girl who led French armies against the English during the Hundred Years' War
  • Captured and executed by the English, later canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church

Primary Sources and Historiography

• Chronicles historical accounts written by contemporary observers (e.g., Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Chronicles of Froissart)
  • Provide valuable insights into events and attitudes of the time but may be biased or incomplete
• Legal documents (Magna Carta, Domesday Book) offer insights into the political, social, and economic structures of medieval society
• Artistic and literary works (Beowulf, The Canterbury Tales) reflect the cultural values and worldviews of the period
• Archaeology the study of material remains, provides evidence of daily life, trade, and technology
  • Examples: Viking ship burials, medieval castles, and urban excavations
• Historiography the study of how history is written and interpreted over time
  • Annales School a 20th-century French historical approach emphasizing long-term social and economic structures over individual events and actions
  • Marxist historiography interprets history through the lens of class struggle and economic determinism
  • Postmodernist approaches challenge traditional historical narratives and emphasize the role of power, language, and subjectivity in shaping historical understanding