Terrestrial biomes are Earth's major land ecosystems, shaped by , soil, and unique plant and animal communities. From frozen to lush rainforests, these biomes showcase nature's diversity and adaptability to different environmental conditions.
Understanding terrestrial biomes is crucial for grasping global ecology and conservation. Human activities like and climate change are altering these ecosystems, highlighting the need for and protection of Earth's vital landscapes.
Types of terrestrial biomes
Terrestrial biomes are large regions of land characterized by distinct climate patterns, soil types, and communities of plants and animals
The distribution of terrestrial biomes is primarily determined by temperature and precipitation, which influence the types of that can grow in an area
Major terrestrial biomes include tundra, , , , , , and
Characteristics of terrestrial biomes
Climate in terrestrial biomes
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Climate is a key factor in determining the distribution and characteristics of terrestrial biomes
Temperature and vary significantly across different biomes, ranging from cold and dry conditions in tundra to hot and humid conditions in tropical rainforests
Seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation also play a role in shaping the structure and function of terrestrial biomes
Soil in terrestrial biomes
and quality vary among terrestrial biomes, influenced by factors such as climate, vegetation, and geological history
In cold biomes like tundra, soils are often thin, nutrient-poor, and underlain by permafrost
Temperate and tropical biomes generally have more developed soils with higher organic matter content and nutrient availability
Vegetation in terrestrial biomes
Vegetation structure and composition are adapted to the specific climate and soil conditions of each biome
Tundra is characterized by low-growing plants like mosses, lichens, and hardy shrubs
Forests (boreal, temperate, and tropical) are dominated by trees, with varying levels of understory vegetation
Grasslands and savannas are characterized by grasses and scattered trees or shrubs
Tundra biome
Climate of tundra
Tundra experiences extremely cold temperatures, with long, harsh winters and short, cool summers
Annual precipitation is low, typically less than 25 cm (10 inches), and mostly occurs as snow
Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is a defining feature of tundra soils
Soil of tundra
Tundra soils are thin, nutrient-poor, and often waterlogged due to the underlying permafrost
Soil development is slow due to the cold temperatures and short growing season
Cryoturbation (mixing of soil layers due to freeze-thaw cycles) is common in tundra soils
Flora of tundra
Tundra vegetation is adapted to the harsh climate and includes low-growing plants like mosses, lichens, sedges, and dwarf shrubs
Plants have shallow root systems to avoid the permafrost layer and often grow in dense clumps to protect against wind and cold
Examples of tundra plants include Arctic willow, bearberry, and cotton grass
Fauna of tundra
Tundra animals are adapted to the cold climate and scarce resources, with many species migrating or hibernating during the winter
Large herbivores like caribou and musk oxen graze on tundra vegetation
Predators such as Arctic foxes, snowy owls, and polar bears hunt smaller animals like lemmings and voles
Boreal forest biome
Climate of boreal forests
Boreal forests (also known as taiga) experience cold, dry winters and short, cool summers
Annual precipitation ranges from 40-100 cm (16-39 inches), with most falling as snow during the winter
Growing seasons are short, typically lasting 3-5 months
Soil of boreal forests
Boreal forest soils are often acidic and nutrient-poor due to slow decomposition rates in the cold climate
Soils are typically podzols, characterized by a thick layer of organic matter (litter) on top of mineral soil horizons
Permafrost may be present in some areas, limiting soil development and drainage
Flora of boreal forests
Boreal forests are dominated by coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, and pine, which are adapted to the cold climate and nutrient-poor soils
Understory vegetation is relatively sparse and includes shrubs like blueberry and lingonberry, as well as mosses and lichens
Deciduous trees like birch and aspen may be present in areas with better soil conditions or following disturbances like fire
Fauna of boreal forests
Boreal forests support a diverse range of animals adapted to the cold climate and coniferous habitat
Large herbivores include moose, deer, and caribou, which browse on trees and shrubs
Predators such as lynx, wolves, and bears hunt smaller mammals like snowshoe hares and rodents
Many migratory bird species, such as warblers and thrushes, breed in boreal forests during the summer
Temperate forest biome
Climate of temperate forests
Temperate forests experience distinct seasonal changes, with cold winters and warm summers
Annual precipitation ranges from 75-150 cm (30-59 inches), distributed relatively evenly throughout the year
Growing seasons are longer than in boreal forests, typically lasting 5-7 months
Soil of temperate forests
Temperate forest soils are generally fertile and well-developed, with a rich organic layer (humus) and active soil fauna
Soils are often alfisols or mollisols, characterized by a high base saturation and good drainage
Soil pH and nutrient availability vary depending on the underlying bedrock and vegetation type
Flora of temperate forests
Temperate forests are characterized by a mix of deciduous and coniferous trees, with species composition varying by region and elevation
Deciduous trees like oak, maple, and beech dominate many temperate forests, shedding their leaves in the fall
Understory vegetation is diverse and includes shrubs, herbaceous plants, and spring ephemerals that take advantage of the high light levels before the canopy closes
Fauna of temperate forests
Temperate forests support a wide range of animals, including both generalists and specialists
Large herbivores like deer and elk browse on vegetation, while smaller mammals like squirrels and chipmunks feed on seeds and nuts
Predators such as bobcats, foxes, and owls hunt smaller animals, while omnivores like bears and raccoons have diverse diets
Many bird species, including woodpeckers, warblers, and thrushes, are found in temperate forests
Temperate grassland biome
Climate of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands experience hot summers and cold winters, with moderate precipitation
Annual precipitation ranges from 25-90 cm (10-35 inches), with most falling during the growing season
Frequent droughts and fires are common in temperate grasslands, shaping the vegetation structure
Soil of temperate grasslands
Temperate grassland soils are often deep and fertile, with a high organic matter content from the dense root systems of grasses
Soils are typically mollisols, characterized by a thick, dark surface horizon (A horizon) rich in nutrients
Soil formation is influenced by the semi-arid climate, with less leaching and weathering compared to wetter biomes
Flora of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands are dominated by a diverse mix of grasses and forbs (non-woody flowering plants)
Grasses are well-adapted to the frequent fires and grazing by large herbivores, with deep root systems and the ability to resprout quickly
Examples of temperate grassland plants include big bluestem, switchgrass, and purple coneflower
Fauna of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands support a variety of animals adapted to the open habitat and seasonal changes in resource availability
Large herbivores like bison, pronghorn, and wild horses graze on the abundant grasses
Smaller mammals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, and badgers create burrows and modify the landscape
Predators like coyotes, hawks, and ferrets hunt the smaller animals, while omnivores like foxes and skunks have more diverse diets
Temperate desert biome
Climate of temperate deserts
Temperate deserts experience hot, dry summers and cool winters with minimal precipitation
Annual precipitation is typically less than 25 cm (10 inches), with most falling as brief, intense rainstorms
High evaporation rates and large temperature fluctuations between day and night are common
Soil of temperate deserts
Temperate desert soils are often sandy or rocky, with low organic matter content and limited soil development
Soils are typically aridisols, characterized by a lack of moisture and the accumulation of salts and carbonates
Biological soil crust, composed of cyanobacteria, lichens, and mosses, plays a crucial role in stabilizing desert soils and fixing nitrogen
Flora of temperate deserts
Temperate desert vegetation is sparse and adapted to the harsh, dry conditions
Plants have various adaptations to conserve water, such as small leaves, thick cuticles, and deep root systems
Examples of temperate desert plants include cacti, yucca, and sagebrush
Fauna of temperate deserts
Temperate desert animals are adapted to the extreme temperatures and scarce water resources
Many animals are nocturnal or crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk) to avoid the heat of the day
Examples of temperate desert animals include kangaroo rats, rattlesnakes, and roadrunners
Insects and other invertebrates, such as scorpions and beetles, are also abundant in temperate deserts
Tropical savanna biome
Climate of tropical savannas
Tropical savannas experience hot temperatures year-round, with distinct wet and dry seasons
Annual precipitation ranges from 50-130 cm (20-50 inches), with most falling during the wet season
The length of the dry season varies, but can last several months
Soil of tropical savannas
Tropical savanna soils are often nutrient-poor and heavily weathered due to the high temperatures and seasonal rainfall
Soils are typically oxisols or ultisols, characterized by a high clay content and low fertility
Termites play a significant role in soil turnover and nutrient cycling in tropical savannas
Flora of tropical savannas
Tropical savannas are characterized by a continuous layer of grasses and scattered trees or shrubs
Grasses are fire-adapted and quickly resprout after burning, while trees have thick bark and deep root systems to survive fires and drought
Examples of tropical savanna plants include acacia trees, baobab trees, and elephant grass
Fauna of tropical savannas
Tropical savannas support a diverse array of animals, many of which are adapted to the seasonal changes in resource availability
Large herbivores like elephants, giraffes, and zebras graze on the abundant grasses and browse on trees and shrubs
Predators such as lions, cheetahs, and hyenas hunt the herbivores, while smaller carnivores like jackals and wild dogs target smaller prey
Many bird species, including ostriches, secretary birds, and oxpeckers, are found in tropical savannas
Tropical rainforest biome
Climate of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests experience hot, humid conditions year-round, with little seasonal variation in temperature
Annual precipitation is high, typically exceeding 200 cm (79 inches), and is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year
Humidity levels are consistently high, often above 80%
Soil of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforest soils are often nutrient-poor and heavily weathered due to the high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Soils are typically oxisols or ultisols, characterized by a high clay content and low fertility
Despite the low soil quality, the rapid nutrient cycling between plants and the soil supports the high of tropical rainforests
Flora of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests are characterized by a complex, multi-layered structure with a high diversity of plant species
The canopy layer is dominated by tall, broadleaf evergreen trees, while the understory contains smaller trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants
Epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) and lianas (woody vines) are abundant in tropical rainforests
Examples of tropical rainforest plants include bromeliads, orchids, and figs
Fauna of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests support an incredible diversity of animal life, with many species found nowhere else on Earth
Arboreal (tree-dwelling) animals like monkeys, sloths, and birds are common, adapted to life in the complex canopy
Large mammals such as tapirs, jaguars, and gorillas inhabit the forest floor, while countless invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles occupy various niches
Many species have evolved complex relationships, such as mutualisms between plants and their pollinators or seed dispersers
Human impacts on terrestrial biomes
Deforestation of terrestrial biomes
Deforestation, the removal of forests for timber, agriculture, or development, is a major threat to terrestrial biomes, particularly tropical rainforests
Clearing forests leads to habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, threatening biodiversity and altering ecosystem functions
Deforestation also contributes to climate change by releasing stored carbon and reducing the capacity of forests to absorb atmospheric CO2
Desertification of terrestrial biomes
Desertification is the process by which drylands (arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas) become increasingly degraded and unproductive
Overgrazing, unsustainable agriculture, and climate change can all contribute to desertification
Desertification leads to soil erosion, loss of vegetation cover, and reduced biodiversity, ultimately impacting the livelihoods of millions of people
Conservation of terrestrial biomes
Conservation efforts aim to protect and restore terrestrial biomes and their associated biodiversity
Strategies include establishing , promoting sustainable land management practices, and restoring degraded habitats
Engaging local communities and addressing socio-economic factors are crucial for successful conservation outcomes
International agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, provide frameworks for global cooperation in conserving terrestrial biomes
Key Terms to Review (25)
Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, encompassing the different species, genetic variations, and ecosystems that exist. It plays a critical role in maintaining ecosystem balance and provides a foundation for ecosystem services, which benefit human well-being. High biodiversity can enhance resilience to environmental changes, while the loss of biodiversity can have serious implications for both ecosystems and human societies.
Biome Mapping: Biome mapping is the process of identifying and categorizing different terrestrial biomes based on various environmental factors such as climate, vegetation, and geography. This method helps scientists and ecologists understand the distribution of ecosystems across the globe, revealing patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Through biome mapping, researchers can analyze how environmental changes affect biomes and contribute to conservation efforts.
Boreal Forests: Boreal forests, also known as taiga, are a biome characterized by their coniferous forests, which primarily consist of evergreen trees such as spruce, fir, and pine. These forests are found in high northern latitudes, spanning across North America, Europe, and Asia, playing a crucial role in global carbon storage and influencing local climates.
Cacti in Desert: Cacti are specialized plants that thrive in arid desert environments, characterized by their unique adaptations for water conservation and survival. They are a key component of desert ecosystems, often serving as crucial sources of food and shelter for various wildlife species. Their ability to store water and perform photosynthesis through modified structures makes them well-suited to harsh conditions found in deserts.
Climate: Climate refers to the long-term patterns of temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation in a specific area. Unlike weather, which can change from day to day, climate represents the average conditions over extended periods, typically 30 years or more. This long-term perspective is crucial when examining ecosystems and their associated biomes, as climate plays a significant role in determining the types of plants and animals that can thrive in a given region.
Coniferous trees in taiga: Coniferous trees in taiga refer to the dominant tree species found in the boreal forest biome, characterized by needle-like leaves and cones. These trees, such as spruce, pine, and fir, are specially adapted to survive the harsh, cold conditions of the taiga, where winters are long and freezing. Their structure and reproductive strategies contribute to the unique ecosystem and biodiversity of the taiga region, making them a crucial part of this terrestrial biome.
Deforestation: Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees from forested areas, often resulting in damage to the quality of the land. This practice significantly impacts various ecosystems and can lead to loss of biodiversity, changes in carbon cycling, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation is a major environmental issue that connects with changes in terrestrial biomes, threatens countless species, alters the carbon cycle, contributes to climate change, and raises important ethical discussions regarding human impact on nature.
Ecosystem Services: Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from natural ecosystems, which play a vital role in sustaining life on Earth. These services include provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services that not only enhance human well-being but also ensure ecological balance. Understanding these services helps in recognizing the interconnectedness of biodiversity and ecosystem health, which is essential for conservation efforts and sustainable development.
Köppen Climate Classification: The Köppen Climate Classification is a widely used system for categorizing the world's climates based on temperature, precipitation, and vegetation. It helps in understanding how different climate types influence the distribution of terrestrial biomes, as it classifies climates into five main groups, which are further divided into subcategories that reflect local conditions. This classification aids in predicting ecosystem dynamics and biodiversity patterns across different geographical areas.
Mosses in Tundra: Mosses in tundra are non-vascular plants that thrive in the cold, harsh environments of polar regions and high altitudes. These resilient organisms play a critical role in tundra ecosystems, contributing to soil formation, moisture retention, and serving as a food source for various herbivores. Their ability to tolerate extreme temperatures and desiccation makes them essential for stabilizing the fragile tundra landscape.
Precipitation Patterns: Precipitation patterns refer to the distribution, frequency, and intensity of rainfall and other forms of moisture in a given area over time. These patterns are crucial in defining various terrestrial biomes, as they influence the types of vegetation, animal species, and overall ecosystem dynamics. Variations in precipitation can result from geographical factors, climate change, and atmospheric conditions, leading to distinct characteristics for different biomes such as deserts, grasslands, and forests.
Primary Succession: Primary succession is the ecological process that occurs in an area where no soil exists, such as after a volcanic eruption or glacial retreat, leading to the gradual establishment of a biological community. This process involves the colonization of pioneer species that create conditions for later, more complex ecosystems to develop over time. It plays a crucial role in the formation of new terrestrial biomes and helps to illustrate the dynamic nature of ecosystem structure and function as communities evolve.
Protected Areas: Protected areas are designated regions that are set aside to conserve biodiversity, cultural heritage, and natural resources. These areas help safeguard ecosystems and wildlife, ensuring the preservation of species and habitats while also providing benefits like recreation and education. Their establishment is crucial for maintaining ecological balance, enhancing levels of biodiversity, and implementing effective conservation strategies.
Secondary Succession: Secondary succession is the process of ecological change that occurs in a previously inhabited area after a disturbance, such as a fire, flood, or human activity, which leaves the soil intact. This type of succession allows ecosystems to recover and rebuild their structure and function more quickly than primary succession because it starts with existing soil and organic material. The progression through different stages of species colonization helps shape the recovery of the ecosystem, restoring biodiversity and ecological balance over time.
Soil type: Soil type refers to the classification of soil based on its physical and chemical properties, such as texture, structure, composition, and nutrient content. Understanding soil types is crucial because they directly influence the types of vegetation that can thrive in different terrestrial environments and affect water retention and drainage capabilities, which are vital for ecosystem health and productivity.
Sustainable management: Sustainable management is an approach that seeks to balance environmental, social, and economic needs to ensure the long-term health and viability of ecosystems and natural resources. This concept is crucial in guiding how resources are utilized in various biomes, aiming to maintain biodiversity, protect habitats, and promote resilience against climate change and human impacts. Sustainable management promotes practices that are both ecologically sound and economically viable, fostering a harmonious relationship between human activities and the environment.
Temperate Deserts: Temperate deserts are regions characterized by low precipitation, moderate temperatures, and distinct seasonal variations. These biomes typically have hot summers and cool winters, with vegetation that can include drought-resistant shrubs and sparse grasses. The unique climate and ecology of temperate deserts distinguish them from other desert types and contribute to their role within the broader context of terrestrial biomes.
Temperate Forests: Temperate forests are a biome characterized by distinct seasons, moderate temperatures, and diverse plant and animal life. These forests are found in regions with a temperate climate, where rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, supporting a rich variety of trees such as deciduous and coniferous species. This biome plays a crucial role in global ecosystems by providing habitat, regulating climate, and contributing to the carbon cycle.
Temperate grasslands: Temperate grasslands are vast, treeless regions characterized by grasses and occasional shrubs, with moderate rainfall and distinct seasonal temperature variations. These biomes play a crucial role in supporting diverse ecosystems and are often found in the interior regions of continents, influenced by climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation patterns.
Temperature Ranges: Temperature ranges refer to the variations in temperature that occur within a specific environment over a given period. These ranges are crucial for understanding the characteristics of different terrestrial biomes, as they directly influence the types of organisms that can thrive in those areas and their physiological adaptations. Different biomes are defined not only by their flora and fauna but also by their unique climate patterns, which include temperature fluctuations that dictate the seasonal behaviors and life cycles of various species.
Tropical Rainforests: Tropical rainforests are dense, lush forests found near the equator, characterized by high rainfall and a diverse range of plant and animal species. These ecosystems are known for their warm temperatures year-round and layered structure, which provides various habitats and niches for countless organisms, making them one of the most biologically diverse terrestrial biomes on Earth.
Tropical savannas: Tropical savannas are grassland ecosystems characterized by a mix of open grasslands and scattered trees, typically found in regions with a warm climate and seasonal rainfall. They represent a unique biome within the classification of terrestrial biomes, playing a vital role in supporting diverse wildlife and vegetation adapted to these conditions.
Tundra: Tundra is a cold, treeless biome characterized by low temperatures, short growing seasons, and a limited variety of vegetation, primarily mosses, lichens, and low shrubs. This unique biome occurs in polar regions and high mountain areas, where the permafrost layer inhibits deep root growth and limits plant diversity. The tundra plays a crucial role in global ecology by acting as a carbon sink and influencing climate patterns.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which rural areas transform into urban areas, characterized by an increase in population density and the expansion of cities. This transformation often leads to significant changes in land use, economic activities, and social dynamics, affecting both the natural environment and human communities. The implications of urbanization extend beyond city limits, influencing ecosystems, biodiversity, and nutrient cycles in surrounding areas.
Vegetation: Vegetation refers to the collective plant life that exists in a specific area, encompassing trees, shrubs, grasses, and other forms of plant life. This term is crucial in understanding the structure and functioning of ecosystems, as well as how different plant communities adapt to their environments. Variations in vegetation types are often influenced by factors such as climate, soil conditions, and topography, making it a key element in defining different ecological regions and their dynamics.