🏎️Engineering Mechanics – Dynamics Unit 9 – Vibrations

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Vibration the oscillatory motion of a system or object around an equilibrium position
• Period ($T$) time required for one complete cycle of oscillation, measured in seconds
• Frequency ($f$) number of cycles per unit time, measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
  • Related to period by the equation $f = \frac{1}{T}$
• Amplitude maximum displacement from the equilibrium position during oscillation
• Angular frequency ($\omega$) measured in radians per second, related to frequency by $\omega = 2\pi f$
• Degrees of freedom (DOF) number of independent coordinates needed to describe a system's motion
  • Single DOF systems have one coordinate (mass-spring system)
  • Multi DOF systems have multiple coordinates (coupled pendulums)
• Natural frequency frequency at which a system oscillates when disturbed from its equilibrium position without external forces

Types of Vibrations

• Free vibration occurs when a system oscillates without any external forces acting on it
  • Determined by the system's inherent properties (mass, stiffness, damping)
• Forced vibration occurs when a system is subjected to an external force or excitation
  • Steady-state response depends on the frequency and amplitude of the external force
• Undamped vibration oscillation without any energy dissipation, resulting in constant amplitude
• Damped vibration oscillation with energy dissipation, causing the amplitude to decrease over time
  • Viscous damping force proportional to velocity (hydraulic shock absorbers)
  • Coulomb damping force constant in magnitude but opposite to the direction of motion (dry friction)
• Linear vibration systems with linear restoring forces, resulting in sinusoidal motion
• Nonlinear vibration systems with nonlinear restoring forces, leading to complex motion (hardening or softening springs)

Mathematical Models and Equations

• Mass-spring-damper model simplest representation of a vibratory system
  • Consists of a mass ($m$), spring with stiffness ($k$), and damper with damping coefficient ($c$)
• Equation of motion describes the system's dynamic behavior, derived using Newton's second law
  • For a single DOF system: $m\ddot{x} + c\dot{x} + kx = F(t)$, where $x$ is displacement and $F(t)$ is the external force
• Homogeneous equation $m\ddot{x} + c\dot{x} + kx = 0$ represents free vibration without external forces
• Particular solution represents the steady-state response to an external force
• Laplace transforms used to solve differential equations by transforming them into algebraic equations
  • Transfer functions relate input (force) to output (displacement) in the Laplace domain
• Fourier series represents periodic functions as a sum of sinusoidal components
  • Helps analyze the frequency content of vibration signals

Free Vibration Analysis

• Undamped free vibration occurs when there is no damping ($c = 0$) and no external force ($F(t) = 0$)
  • Equation of motion simplifies to $m\ddot{x} + kx = 0$
  • Solution is harmonic motion: $x(t) = A\cos(\omega_n t + \phi)$, where $A$ is amplitude and $\phi$ is phase angle
• Natural frequency ($\omega_n$) for undamped systems: $\omega_n = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}$
• Damped free vibration includes the effect of damping ($c > 0$) without external forces
  • Equation of motion: $m\ddot{x} + c\dot{x} + kx = 0$
  • Damping ratio ($\zeta$) characterizes the level of damping: $\zeta = \frac{c}{2\sqrt{km}}$
    • Underdamped ($0 < \zeta < 1$): oscillatory motion with decreasing amplitude
    • Critically damped ($\zeta = 1$): fastest non-oscillatory response
    • Overdamped ($\zeta > 1$): slow, non-oscillatory response
• Logarithmic decrement measures the rate of amplitude decay in damped free vibration
  • Defined as $\delta = \ln\left(\frac{x_i}{x_{i+1}}\right) = \frac{2\pi\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\zeta^2}}$, where $x_i$ and $x_{i+1}$ are consecutive peak amplitudes

Forced Vibration Analysis

• Steady-state response the long-term behavior of a system subjected to a periodic external force
  • Transient response the initial, short-term behavior that decays due to damping
• Harmonic excitation a sinusoidal external force with a specific frequency ($\omega$) and amplitude ($F_0$)
  • Equation of motion: $m\ddot{x} + c\dot{x} + kx = F_0\cos(\omega t)$
  • Steady-state solution: $x(t) = X\cos(\omega t - \phi)$, where $X$ is the amplitude and $\phi$ is the phase angle
• Frequency response describes the system's response amplitude and phase as a function of the excitation frequency
  • Resonance occurs when the excitation frequency is close to the system's natural frequency, leading to large amplitudes
• Transmissibility ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude, used to assess vibration isolation
  • Transmissibility greater than 1 indicates amplification, while less than 1 indicates attenuation
• Vibration isolation reduces the transmission of vibrations from a source to a receiver
  • Achieved by using soft springs and dampers to reduce the natural frequency and increase damping

Damping and Resonance

• Damping dissipation of energy in a vibrating system, leading to amplitude decay
  • Viscous damping force proportional to velocity, commonly used in mathematical models
  • Hysteretic damping energy dissipation due to internal friction in materials
• Quality factor ($Q$) measure of a system's damping, defined as $Q = \frac{1}{2\zeta}$
  • Higher $Q$ values indicate lower damping and sharper resonance peaks
• Resonance occurs when the excitation frequency matches the system's natural frequency
  • Leads to large amplitudes and potential structural damage or failure
  • Avoided by designing systems with high damping or by detuning the natural frequency
• Beating phenomenon occurs when two slightly different frequencies are superimposed
  • Results in a modulated amplitude with a beat frequency equal to the difference between the two frequencies
• Modal analysis technique to identify a system's natural frequencies, mode shapes, and damping ratios
  • Helps in understanding and controlling resonance in complex structures

Practical Applications and Examples

• Automotive suspension systems use springs and dampers to isolate the vehicle from road irregularities
  • Designed to balance ride comfort and handling performance
• Seismic isolation protects buildings and structures from earthquake-induced vibrations
  • Uses base isolation systems (lead-rubber bearings, friction pendulum bearings) to decouple the structure from the ground motion
• Vibration absorbers additional mass-spring systems attached to a primary structure to reduce vibrations
  • Tuned mass dampers (TMDs) commonly used in tall buildings and bridges to mitigate wind-induced vibrations
• Rotating machinery (engines, turbines, pumps) prone to vibrations due to unbalanced forces and misalignment
  • Vibration monitoring and balancing techniques used to ensure smooth operation and prevent damage
• Musical instruments rely on vibrations to produce sound
  • Strings (guitar, violin) vibrate at specific frequencies determined by their length, tension, and material properties
  • Wind instruments (flute, trumpet) generate sound through vibrating air columns

Problem-Solving Techniques

• Free body diagrams visual representations of forces and moments acting on a system
  • Help in identifying the governing equations of motion
• Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic equations
  • Facilitate the solution of linear, time-invariant systems
• Fourier analysis decomposes complex vibration signals into sinusoidal components
  • Helps identify dominant frequencies and analyze the frequency content
• Numerical methods (Runge-Kutta, finite element analysis) solve complex, nonlinear vibration problems
  • Provide approximate solutions when analytical methods are not feasible
• Experimental modal analysis identifies a system's modal parameters (natural frequencies, mode shapes, damping ratios) through measurements
  • Involves exciting the structure and measuring its response using sensors (accelerometers, strain gauges)
• Dimensional analysis technique to simplify problems by identifying dimensionless groups of variables
  • Helps in scaling and designing experiments or simulations
• Energy methods (Lagrange's equations, Hamilton's principle) derive equations of motion based on energy conservation principles
  • Useful for systems with multiple degrees of freedom and complex constraints