🔋Electromagnetism II Unit 7 – Magnetostatics & Magnetic Materials

Key Concepts and Fundamentals

• Magnetostatics deals with time-independent magnetic fields and their interactions with matter
• Magnetic fields are generated by moving electric charges (electric currents) and magnetic dipoles
• Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges and magnetic dipoles according to the Lorentz force law: $\vec{F} = q\vec{v} \times \vec{B}$
  • $q$ represents the charge of the particle
  • $\vec{v}$ represents the velocity of the particle
  • $\vec{B}$ represents the magnetic field
• Magnetic fields are represented by field lines, which form closed loops and never intersect
• The magnetic flux $\Phi_B$ through a surface is the total number of magnetic field lines passing through that surface: $\Phi_B = \int \vec{B} \cdot d\vec{A}$
• Magnetic fields obey the principle of superposition, meaning that the total magnetic field at a point is the vector sum of all individual magnetic fields at that point
• Magnetic fields are divergence-free ($\nabla \cdot \vec{B} = 0$), implying that magnetic monopoles do not exist

Magnetic Fields and Sources

• Magnetic fields can be generated by current-carrying conductors, such as wires, coils, and solenoids
• The magnetic field around a long, straight current-carrying wire is given by: $B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2\pi r}$
  • $\mu_0$ is the permeability of free space ($4\pi \times 10^{-7} \text{ T} \cdot \text{m/A}$)
  • $I$ is the current flowing through the wire
  • $r$ is the distance from the wire
• The magnetic field inside a solenoid is uniform and given by: $B = \mu_0 n I$, where $n$ is the number of turns per unit length
• Permanent magnets, such as bar magnets and horseshoe magnets, generate magnetic fields due to the alignment of magnetic dipoles within the material
• Earth's magnetic field is generated by the motion of molten iron in its outer core, creating a magnetic dipole field
• The magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole at a distance $r$ is given by: $\vec{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi r^3}(3(\vec{m} \cdot \hat{r})\hat{r} - \vec{m})$
  • $\vec{m}$ is the magnetic dipole moment
  • $\hat{r}$ is the unit vector pointing from the dipole to the point of interest

Magnetic Forces and Torques

• Magnetic fields exert forces on moving charges according to the Lorentz force law: $\vec{F} = q\vec{v} \times \vec{B}$
• The direction of the magnetic force is perpendicular to both the velocity of the charge and the magnetic field, as determined by the right-hand rule
• Magnetic fields do not perform work on charged particles, as the force is always perpendicular to the particle's motion
• Current-carrying conductors experience a force in a magnetic field given by: $\vec{F} = I\vec{L} \times \vec{B}$, where $\vec{L}$ is the length vector of the conductor
• Magnetic dipoles experience a torque in a magnetic field given by: $\vec{\tau} = \vec{m} \times \vec{B}$
  • The torque tends to align the magnetic dipole with the external magnetic field
• Charged particles moving in a uniform magnetic field follow a circular path with a radius given by: $r = \frac{mv}{qB}$
  • This principle is used in devices such as cyclotrons and mass spectrometers

Biot-Savart Law and Applications

• The Biot-Savart law calculates the magnetic field generated by a current-carrying conductor at a point in space
• The general form of the Biot-Savart law is: $d\vec{B} = \frac{\mu_0}{4\pi} \frac{I d\vec{l} \times \hat{r}}{r^2}$
  • $I$ is the current flowing through the conductor
  • $d\vec{l}$ is an infinitesimal length element of the conductor
  • $\hat{r}$ is the unit vector pointing from the conductor element to the point of interest
  • $r$ is the distance between the conductor element and the point of interest
• To find the total magnetic field, integrate the Biot-Savart law over the entire current distribution: $\vec{B} = \int d\vec{B}$
• The Biot-Savart law can be used to calculate the magnetic field of various current configurations, such as:
  • Straight wires
  • Circular loops
  • Solenoids
  • Toroidal coils
• The magnetic field at the center of a circular loop of radius $R$ carrying a current $I$ is given by: $B = \frac{\mu_0 I}{2R}$
• The Biot-Savart law is particularly useful when dealing with complex current distributions or geometries where Ampère's law is difficult to apply

Ampère's Law and Its Uses

• Ampère's law relates the magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop
• The integral form of Ampère's law is: $\oint \vec{B} \cdot d\vec{l} = \mu_0 I_{enc}$
  • $\oint$ represents the closed line integral around the loop
  • $d\vec{l}$ is an infinitesimal length element along the loop
  • $I_{enc}$ is the total current enclosed by the loop
• Ampère's law is particularly useful for calculating the magnetic field in situations with high symmetry, such as:
  • Infinite straight wires
  • Infinite solenoids
  • Toroidal coils
• The differential form of Ampère's law, known as the Ampère-Maxwell law, includes the displacement current term: $\nabla \times \vec{B} = \mu_0 \vec{J} + \mu_0 \varepsilon_0 \frac{\partial \vec{E}}{\partial t}$
  • $\vec{J}$ is the current density
  • $\varepsilon_0$ is the permittivity of free space
  • $\frac{\partial \vec{E}}{\partial t}$ is the time-varying electric field (displacement current)
• The displacement current term is essential for maintaining the continuity of the magnetic field in time-varying situations, such as in electromagnetic waves

Magnetic Materials and Properties

• Magnetic materials can be classified into three main categories based on their response to an external magnetic field:
  • Diamagnetic materials (weakly repelled by magnetic fields, e.g., water, copper, and bismuth)
  • Paramagnetic materials (weakly attracted to magnetic fields, e.g., aluminum, platinum, and oxygen)
  • Ferromagnetic materials (strongly attracted to magnetic fields, e.g., iron, nickel, and cobalt)
• Diamagnetic materials have no unpaired electrons and generate a weak magnetic field that opposes the applied field
• Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons that align with the applied magnetic field, resulting in a weak attraction
• Ferromagnetic materials have a strong alignment of magnetic dipoles, leading to a large net magnetic moment and strong attraction to magnetic fields
• Ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis, meaning their magnetization depends on the history of the applied magnetic field
  • The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the applied field (H) and the resulting magnetization (M)
  • Key points on the hysteresis loop include the saturation magnetization, remanent magnetization, and coercive field
• Curie temperature is the critical temperature above which a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic
  • At the Curie temperature, thermal energy overcomes the alignment of magnetic dipoles

Magnetization and Magnetic Susceptibility

• Magnetization $\vec{M}$ is the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of a material: $\vec{M} = \frac{d\vec{m}}{dV}$
• The total magnetic field $\vec{B}$ in a material is the sum of the applied field $\vec{H}$ and the magnetization: $\vec{B} = \mu_0 (\vec{H} + \vec{M})$
• Magnetic susceptibility $\chi$ is a dimensionless quantity that describes a material's response to an applied magnetic field: $\vec{M} = \chi \vec{H}$
  • Diamagnetic materials have a small, negative susceptibility ($\chi < 0$)
  • Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility ($\chi > 0$)
  • Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility ($\chi \gg 1$)
• Relative permeability $\mu_r$ relates the magnetic permeability of a material to the permeability of free space: $\mu = \mu_r \mu_0$
  • For linear materials, $\mu_r = 1 + \chi$
• The magnetic field inside a material is given by: $\vec{B} = \mu \vec{H}$
• Demagnetization factors describe the effect of a material's shape on its internal magnetic field
  • The demagnetization factor is highest along the shortest dimension of the material

Practical Applications and Real-World Examples

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed images of the human body
  • The magnetic field aligns the protons in the body, and radio waves are used to manipulate and detect their resonance
• Electromagnetic induction, the basis for transformers and generators, relies on time-varying magnetic fields to induce electric currents
  • Faraday's law describes the relationship between the change in magnetic flux and the induced electromotive force (emf)
• Electric motors and generators convert between electrical and mechanical energy using magnetic fields
  • In motors, current-carrying coils experience a torque in a magnetic field, causing rotation
  • In generators, the motion of conductors in a magnetic field induces an electric current
• Magnetic levitation (Maglev) trains use strong magnetic fields to lift and propel the train, reducing friction and enabling high-speed travel
• Magnetic data storage devices, such as hard disk drives and magnetic tape, use the magnetization of ferromagnetic materials to store and retrieve digital information
• Particle accelerators, such as cyclotrons and synchrotrons, use magnetic fields to guide and accelerate charged particles to high energies
  • The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN uses superconducting magnets to accelerate and collide protons for high-energy physics experiments
• Earth's magnetic field protects the planet from harmful solar wind particles and cosmic rays, deflecting them towards the poles and creating the auroras (Northern and Southern Lights)