8.1 EMI test equipment
11 min read•august 21, 2024
EMI test equipment is crucial for identifying and measuring electromagnetic interference in electronic systems. From spectrum analyzers to specialized antennas, these tools help engineers ensure devices meet EMC standards and regulations.
Various instruments and accessories work together to create comprehensive EMI testing setups. Analyzers measure emissions, while test chambers provide controlled environments. Probes and transducers allow for detailed diagnostics and source identification.
Types of EMI analyzers
- EMI analyzers play a crucial role in identifying and characterizing electromagnetic interference sources in electronic systems
- These instruments help engineers ensure compliance with EMC regulations and standards by measuring emissions across various frequency ranges
Spectrum analyzers
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- Measure and display signal amplitude vs frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum
- Provide wideband frequency analysis capabilities, typically from a few Hz to several GHz
- Feature resolution (RBW) settings to adjust measurement sensitivity and speed
- Employ swept-tuned or FFT-based architectures for signal analysis
- Allow peak, quasi-peak, and average detection modes for EMI measurements
EMI receivers
- Specialized instruments designed specifically for EMI/ and compliance measurements
- Offer high sensitivity and dynamic range for detecting low-level emissions
- Incorporate -compliant detectors (quasi-peak, average, RMS-average)
- Provide time-domain scan capabilities for capturing intermittent or time-varying emissions
- Feature built-in limit lines and report generation tools for standards compliance testing
Signal generators
- Generate precise test signals for EMI/EMC immunity and susceptibility testing
- Produce various modulation types (AM, FM, pulse) to simulate real-world interference sources
- Offer frequency and amplitude sweep capabilities for automated testing
- Provide low phase noise and high spectral purity for accurate measurements
- Can be used in conjunction with power amplifiers for high-level immunity testing
EMI measurement antennas
- EMI measurement antennas are essential tools for capturing during EMC testing
- Different antenna types are used to cover various frequency ranges and measurement scenarios
Biconical antennas
- Broadband antennas typically used for EMI measurements from 30 MHz to 300 MHz
- Feature a symmetrical bow-tie shape with two conical elements
- Provide nearly omnidirectional radiation pattern in the H-plane
- Offer good sensitivity and stable antenna factor across their operating range
- Compact and lightweight design suitable for both laboratory and field measurements
Log-periodic antennas
- Directional antennas used for EMI measurements from 200 MHz to several GHz
- Consist of multiple dipole elements arranged in a logarithmic scaling pattern
- Provide consistent gain and radiation pattern across a wide
- Feature high front-to-back ratio for improved measurement accuracy
- Often combined with biconical antennas to create hybrid antennas for extended frequency coverage
Horn antennas
- Directional antennas used for high-frequency EMI measurements (typically above 1 GHz)
- Shaped like a flared waveguide to provide high gain and directivity
- Offer excellent impedance matching and low VSWR across their operating range
- Available in various types (pyramidal, conical, ridge) for different measurement requirements
- Commonly used for both emissions and immunity testing in the microwave frequency range
Transducers and probes
- Transducers and probes are specialized sensors used to measure electromagnetic fields and currents in EMI/EMC testing
- These devices allow for non-invasive measurements and localized EMI source identification
Current probes
- Clamp-on devices used to measure on cables and wires
- Operate based on the principle of electromagnetic induction
- Provide frequency-dependent transfer impedance for accurate current measurements
- Available in various sizes to accommodate different cable diameters
- Commonly used for power line conducted emissions testing and cable bundle measurements
Voltage probes
- High-impedance probes used to measure voltage signals in electronic circuits
- Feature low capacitance to minimize loading effects on the circuit under test
- Provide wide bandwidth for accurate high-frequency measurements
- Available in active and passive configurations for different measurement scenarios
- Often used in conjunction with oscilloscopes for time-domain EMI analysis
Near-field probes
- Small-aperture sensors used for localized EMI source identification and diagnostics
- Include both electric field (E-field) and magnetic field (H-field) probe types
- Offer high spatial resolution for pinpointing EMI hotspots on PCBs and components
- Typically used with spectrum analyzers or EMI receivers for frequency-domain analysis
- Essential tools for pre-compliance testing and EMI troubleshooting during product development
EMI test chambers
- EMI test chambers provide controlled environments for accurate and repeatable EMC measurements
- These facilities help isolate the device under test (DUT) from external electromagnetic interference
Anechoic chambers
- Rooms lined with RF-absorbing material to simulate free-space conditions
- Eliminate reflections and external interference for accurate radiated emissions measurements
- Feature a uniform quiet zone for placing the device under test (DUT)
- Often equipped with for automated 3D radiation pattern measurements
- Used for both emissions and immunity testing across a wide frequency range
Reverberation chambers
- Highly reflective metal enclosures used for creating statistically uniform electromagnetic fields
- Utilize mechanical stirrers or mode-stirring techniques to create a dynamic test environment
- Provide high field strengths with relatively low input power for efficient immunity testing
- Allow for multi-directional illumination of the DUT without the need for antenna repositioning
- Suitable for both radiated emissions and immunity testing, especially at higher frequencies
Open area test sites
- Outdoor facilities designed for EMI measurements in a controlled open environment
- Feature a large, flat (typically metal) surrounded by a clear area
- Provide a well-defined test volume for accurate antenna-to-DUT measurements
- Often equipped with weather protection (radomes) for year-round testing capabilities
- Used primarily for radiated emissions measurements, especially for large equipment or vehicles
Artificial mains networks
- (AMNs) are essential components in conducted emissions testing
- These devices provide a defined impedance and isolation between the power source and the device under test
LISN vs CISPR 16
- Line Impedance Stabilization Networks (LISNs) are a type of AMN specified in various EMC standards
- CISPR 16 defines standardized AMN configurations for different frequency ranges and applications
- LISNs typically provide a 50 Ω // (50 µH + 5 Ω) impedance characteristic
- CISPR 16 AMNs may have different impedance characteristics depending on the frequency range and test setup
- Both types isolate the DUT from mains-borne disturbances and provide a measurement port for conducted emissions
AMN for different frequency ranges
- Low-frequency AMNs (9 kHz - 30 MHz) used for conducted emissions testing on AC power lines
- DC AMNs designed for testing conducted emissions on DC power supplies and automotive systems
- High-frequency AMNs (up to 300 MHz) used for testing telecommunications equipment
- Specialized AMNs available for three-phase power systems and high-current applications
- Selection of appropriate AMN depends on the DUT power requirements and applicable EMC standards
Oscilloscopes for EMI
- Oscilloscopes are versatile instruments that can be used for both time-domain and frequency-domain EMI analysis
- These tools are particularly useful for capturing and analyzing transient EMI events
Time domain vs frequency domain
- Time-domain measurements show signal amplitude vs time, useful for analyzing pulse characteristics and timing
- Frequency-domain measurements display signal amplitude vs frequency, essential for spectral analysis
- Oscilloscopes with FFT capabilities can convert time-domain data to frequency-domain for EMI analysis
- Time-domain measurements capture transient events that may be missed by traditional frequency-domain analyzers
- Combination of both domains provides comprehensive insight into EMI characteristics and sources
Real-time spectrum analysis
- Advanced oscilloscopes offer real-time spectrum analysis (RTSA) capabilities for EMI measurements
- RTSA provides gap-free spectrum monitoring, capturing intermittent and short-duration emissions
- Utilizes high-speed ADCs and parallel processing to achieve real-time bandwidth up to several GHz
- Features persistence displays and spectrograms for visualizing signal behavior over time
- Allows for triggering on specific spectral events, useful for capturing elusive EMI phenomena
EMI pre-compliance tools
- EMI pre-compliance tools help engineers identify and resolve EMC issues early in the product development cycle
- These instruments and kits provide cost-effective solutions for in-house EMI testing and troubleshooting
Pre-scan receivers
- Simplified EMI receivers designed for quick emissions measurements and diagnostics
- Offer reduced functionality compared to full-compliance receivers but at a lower cost
- Provide basic detectors (peak, quasi-peak) and CISPR bandwidths for standards-compliant measurements
- Often feature built-in limit lines and report generation for easy interpretation of results
- Suitable for production line testing and early-stage EMC evaluation
EMI debugging kits
- Portable sets of tools and probes for on-site EMI troubleshooting and diagnostics
- Typically include near-field probes, current clamps, and compact spectrum analyzers
- May feature specialized probes for specific applications (ESD, high-frequency, magnetic field)
- Often include software for data logging and analysis of measurement results
- Essential for identifying and locating EMI sources during product development and field testing
Calibration equipment
- ensures the accuracy and traceability of EMI measurement instruments
- Regular calibration is crucial for maintaining compliance with EMC standards and regulations
Reference sources
- Precision signal generators used as known emission sources for calibrating EMI measurement systems
- Provide stable and accurate output levels across a wide frequency range
- Available in various types (comb generators, noise sources, CW sources) for different calibration needs
- Often feature built-in attenuators and modulation capabilities for comprehensive system verification
- Traceable to national standards to ensure measurement accuracy and repeatability
Calibration antennas
- Specially designed antennas with precisely known characteristics for calibrating EMI measurement antennas
- Feature stable and well-defined antenna factors across their operating frequency range
- Available in various types to cover different frequency bands (dipoles, log-periodics, horns)
- Often used in conjunction with for complete antenna measurement system calibration
- Provided with calibration certificates traceable to national standards for ensuring measurement accuracy
Data acquisition systems
- automate the process of collecting, analyzing, and reporting EMI measurement data
- These systems improve test efficiency and ensure consistent results across multiple measurements
EMI software suites
- Comprehensive software packages for controlling EMI test equipment and managing measurement data
- Provide intuitive user interfaces for configuring test parameters and visualizing results
- Offer built-in limit lines and test templates for various EMC standards (FCC, CISPR, MIL-STD)
- Feature advanced analysis tools (e.g., time-frequency plots, statistical analysis) for in-depth EMI evaluation
- Generate professional reports and documentation for compliance submissions and internal records
Automated test sequencing
- Software-driven control of EMI test equipment for executing complex measurement sequences
- Allows for unattended operation of long-duration tests (e.g., frequency scans, EUT operating modes)
- Improves measurement repeatability by eliminating operator-induced variations
- Supports integration with turntables and antenna masts for automated 3D radiation pattern measurements
- Enables efficient batch testing of multiple devices or operating conditions
Shielding effectiveness testers
- measure the ability of materials and enclosures to attenuate electromagnetic fields
- These instruments are crucial for evaluating the performance of EMI solutions
Shielded enclosure test equipment
- Specialized systems for measuring the shielding effectiveness of rooms, cabinets, and large enclosures
- Typically consist of a transmitting antenna, receiving antenna, and high-dynamic-range measurement receiver
- Utilize various measurement methods (MIL-STD-285, 299) depending on the frequency range and application
- Often feature automated frequency scanning and data logging capabilities
- Provide results in terms of insertion loss or shielding attenuation across the tested frequency range
Material testing systems
- Instruments designed for measuring the shielding properties of materials and gaskets
- Include sample holders or test fixtures for precise and repeatable measurements
- Employ various measurement techniques (coaxial, waveguide, free-space) depending on the frequency range
- Provide results in terms of reflection loss, absorption loss, and overall shielding effectiveness
- Often used in conjunction with network analyzers for comprehensive material characterization
Immunity test equipment
- Immunity test equipment is used to evaluate the susceptibility of electronic devices to various types of electromagnetic disturbances
- These instruments simulate real-world interference sources to assess product robustness and compliance
ESD simulators
- Generate high-voltage electrostatic discharges to test device immunity to ESD events
- Produce both air discharge and contact discharge pulses according to 61000-4-2 standard
- Feature adjustable voltage levels (typically up to 30 kV) and discharge repetition rates
- Include interchangeable discharge tips for simulating different ESD scenarios
- Often equipped with built-in measurement and reporting capabilities for automated testing
Surge generators
- Produce high-energy transient pulses to simulate lightning strikes and power line disturbances
- Generate various waveforms (combination wave, ring wave) as specified in IEC 61000-4-5
- Offer adjustable voltage levels (up to several kV) and source impedances
- Include coupling/decoupling networks for injecting surges onto power and signal lines
- Often feature programmable test sequences and safety interlocks for operator protection
Burst generators
- Create repetitive fast transient pulses to simulate switching transients and other electrical fast transients (EFT)
- Produce burst sequences according to IEC 61000-4-4 standard
- Offer adjustable voltage levels (typically up to 4 kV) and burst repetition rates
- Include capacitive coupling clamps for injecting bursts onto signal and control lines
- Often combined with in multi-function immunity test systems
EMI filters and attenuators
- EMI filters and attenuators are passive devices used to reduce electromagnetic interference in electronic systems
- These components are essential for both EMI mitigation and measurement system calibration
Power line filters
- Suppress conducted emissions and improve immunity on AC and DC power lines
- Utilize combinations of inductors and capacitors to attenuate high-frequency noise
- Available in various current ratings and configurations (single-phase, three-phase)
- Feature different performance classes (medical, military, general purpose) for specific applications
- Often include additional components (varistors, gas discharge tubes) for transient protection
RF attenuators
- Reduce signal levels in RF and microwave measurement systems
- Provide flat attenuation response across a wide frequency range
- Available in fixed and variable (step, continuously variable) configurations
- Offer various connector types (N, SMA, BNC) for system integration
- Used for extending measurement range and improving impedance matching in EMI test setups
EMI measurement accessories
- EMI measurement accessories enhance the functionality and accuracy of EMI test systems
- These components are crucial for creating standardized and repeatable measurement setups
Coaxial cables and connectors
- Provide low-loss signal transmission between EMI antennas, probes, and measurement instruments
- Feature double-shielded construction for excellent RF interference rejection
- Available in various types (RG-58, RG-214, low-loss foam dielectric) for different applications
- Offer a range of connector options (N, SMA, BNC) for system compatibility
- Require regular maintenance and calibration to ensure measurement accuracy
Turntables and antenna masts
- Automate the positioning of devices under test (DUTs) and measurement antennas
- Turntables rotate the DUT to measure emissions in all horizontal directions
- Antenna masts adjust antenna height to capture maximum emissions according to test standards
- Feature precise position control and readout for repeatable measurements
- Often integrated with for and 3D pattern measurements
Key Terms to Review (34)
Anechoic Chamber: An anechoic chamber is a specialized room designed to eliminate reflections of sound or electromagnetic waves, creating an environment that is acoustically and electromagnetically isolated. This controlled setting is critical for accurately measuring emissions and immunity of devices without interference from external signals or reflections, thus ensuring precise compliance with various standards.
Artificial mains networks: Artificial mains networks are test setups that simulate the electrical characteristics of a typical power distribution system, allowing for the assessment of electromagnetic interference (EMI) in devices intended for connection to the mains power supply. These networks enable consistent and repeatable testing environments, which is crucial for evaluating how electronic devices interact with mains voltages and currents under various conditions. They play a significant role in ensuring compliance with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards.
Automated test sequencing: Automated test sequencing refers to the process of using software and hardware systems to conduct a series of predefined tests on electronic devices or systems in a systematic and efficient manner. This approach ensures that each test is executed in a specific order to validate performance, compliance, and reliability while minimizing human error and maximizing efficiency. Automated test sequencing is essential for thorough EMI testing as it enhances repeatability and accuracy of test results.
Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies over which a system can effectively operate or transmit signals. It plays a crucial role in determining the performance and capabilities of various electronic components and systems, impacting everything from filtering to signal integrity and communication efficiency.
Burst Generators: Burst generators are specialized test equipment used to simulate electromagnetic interference (EMI) by producing short, high-energy pulses. These devices are crucial in testing the resilience of electronic equipment against rapid and intense electromagnetic disturbances, ensuring that products meet required compatibility standards. They play an important role in evaluating how systems react to transient disturbances, which can be critical for maintaining operational integrity in various applications.
Calibration Antennas: Calibration antennas are specialized antennas used to measure and verify the performance of electromagnetic equipment, ensuring accurate results during electromagnetic interference (EMI) testing. These antennas serve as references, allowing for the evaluation of other antennas and devices under test (DUT) by comparing their performance to a known standard. By maintaining precise measurement standards, calibration antennas play a critical role in ensuring that EMI testing is reliable and consistent.
Calibration equipment: Calibration equipment refers to tools and devices used to adjust and verify the accuracy of measurement instruments. These tools ensure that the readings from various electronic devices, such as oscilloscopes and spectrum analyzers, are accurate and reliable, which is essential for conducting precise electromagnetic interference testing.
CISPR: CISPR stands for Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques, an international organization that focuses on developing standards for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). These standards play a crucial role in ensuring that electronic devices operate without causing or being affected by unwanted interference, which is vital for various applications, including automotive systems, communication networks, and compliance testing. CISPR standards are widely referenced by regulatory bodies to establish guidelines for EMC in electronic products across different industries.
Coaxial Cables and Connectors: Coaxial cables are a type of electrical cable that consists of a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. This design allows coaxial cables to carry high-frequency signals with minimal interference, making them essential for applications like television, internet, and other communication systems. Connectors associated with coaxial cables facilitate secure connections between devices, ensuring signal integrity while reducing electromagnetic interference.
Compatibility assessment: Compatibility assessment is the process of evaluating how well different systems or components can work together without causing electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues. This evaluation is crucial in ensuring that devices function as intended in their operational environment, maintaining performance standards while minimizing disruptions. It involves identifying potential sources of EMI and analyzing the susceptibility of devices to these interferences, which can lead to failures or degraded performance.
Conducted emissions: Conducted emissions refer to unwanted electrical energy that travels along conductive paths, such as power and signal lines, from a source of electromagnetic interference (EMI) into surrounding electronic devices and systems. These emissions can degrade the performance of sensitive equipment, leading to malfunctions or failures, which makes their understanding critical in various contexts, including regulatory compliance and design practices.
Data Acquisition Systems: Data acquisition systems are integrated setups that collect, measure, and analyze data from various sources, often used in monitoring and control applications. These systems are essential for capturing real-time data which can then be processed for analysis or used to make informed decisions, especially in the context of electromagnetic interference and compatibility testing.
EMC Testing: EMC testing is the process of evaluating a device's ability to function properly in its electromagnetic environment while minimizing its electromagnetic emissions that may interfere with other devices. This involves assessing both radiated and conducted emissions to ensure compliance with international standards, which helps in guaranteeing the reliability of electronic products in various applications. Additionally, it considers the design and materials used in devices, particularly in multilayer PCBs, as well as the effectiveness of test equipment and mitigation strategies for wireless devices.
EMI Receiver: An EMI receiver is a specialized instrument used to measure electromagnetic interference (EMI) signals in various environments, helping to identify sources of unwanted emissions and ensure compliance with electromagnetic compatibility standards. This tool is critical in evaluating radiated emissions from electronic devices, determining their impact on other equipment, and verifying that they meet regulatory requirements.
Emi software suites: EMI software suites are specialized software programs designed to assist engineers in assessing, simulating, and analyzing electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) in electronic systems. These tools enable users to predict EMI behavior, optimize designs for compatibility, and streamline the testing process, ultimately helping to ensure that electronic devices meet regulatory standards and function correctly in their intended environments.
ESD Simulators: ESD simulators are specialized testing devices used to replicate electrostatic discharge events in a controlled environment. These simulators are crucial for assessing the susceptibility of electronic components and systems to ESD, which can cause malfunctions or failures in sensitive equipment. By generating controlled ESD pulses, these devices help engineers evaluate how well products can withstand potential electrostatic discharges during real-world conditions.
FCC Part 15: FCC Part 15 refers to a set of regulations established by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States that governs unlicensed radio frequency devices and their emissions. This regulation is crucial for ensuring that electronic devices do not cause harmful interference to licensed radio services, maintaining a balance between innovation and spectrum management.
Field Strength: Field strength refers to the intensity of an electric or magnetic field at a specific point in space, typically measured in volts per meter (V/m) for electric fields and amperes per meter (A/m) for magnetic fields. Understanding field strength is essential for evaluating the performance of electronic devices, predicting interference, and ensuring compliance with electromagnetic compatibility standards.
Filtering: Filtering is the process of removing unwanted frequencies from a signal to improve the quality of the desired output. This technique plays a crucial role in minimizing electromagnetic interference (EMI) by targeting specific noise frequencies that could disrupt the performance of electronic devices and systems.
Frequency Range: Frequency range refers to the spectrum of frequencies over which a particular system or component operates effectively. This concept is crucial in understanding how devices interact with electromagnetic signals, particularly in the context of shielding effectiveness, testing methodologies, and design considerations for ensuring compatibility with various electromagnetic environments.
Ground Plane: A ground plane is a conductive layer in a circuit board or system that serves as a common reference point for electrical signals and provides a return path for current. This crucial component helps minimize electromagnetic interference (EMI) and enhances the overall performance of electronic devices by ensuring signal integrity and stable operation.
IEC: IEC stands for the International Electrotechnical Commission, which is an organization that prepares and publishes international standards for electrical and electronic technologies. These standards ensure the safety, efficiency, and reliability of devices and systems in various applications. The IEC's work directly influences regulations such as the European EMC Directive, helps define the specifications for EMI test equipment, and impacts grounding theory by promoting standardized methods for effective grounding practices.
IEEE: IEEE stands for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, a professional association dedicated to advancing technology and innovation in various fields, including electrical engineering, electronics, computer science, and telecommunications. This organization develops standards that play a crucial role in ensuring compatibility and performance in technologies such as EMI test equipment, immunity testing, antenna design, cellular networks, and grounding theory.
Lisn: A LISN, or Line Impedance Stabilization Network, is a specialized device used in electromagnetic interference (EMI) testing to stabilize the impedance of power lines and provide a consistent measurement environment. By ensuring that the impedance seen by the device under test (DUT) is uniform, LISNs help accurately measure conducted emissions and immunity levels, enabling compliance with regulatory standards.
Power Line Filters: Power line filters are electronic devices used to suppress electromagnetic interference (EMI) that can be transmitted through power lines. These filters work by attenuating unwanted noise and allowing clean power to flow to electrical devices, ensuring they operate correctly and do not interfere with other equipment. They are crucial in maintaining electromagnetic compatibility and protecting sensitive electronics from fluctuations in power quality.
Radiated Emissions: Radiated emissions refer to the electromagnetic energy emitted from an electronic device into the surrounding environment through space. These emissions can interfere with the operation of nearby electronic devices and are a crucial aspect to consider for ensuring electromagnetic compatibility.
Reference sources: Reference sources are materials that provide authoritative information on a wide range of topics, often used to support research or verify facts. These sources can include encyclopedias, dictionaries, technical manuals, and standards documents that are essential for understanding and addressing electromagnetic interference (EMI) and compatibility issues.
Rf attenuators: RF attenuators are passive electronic devices designed to reduce the power level of an RF signal without distorting its waveform. They are crucial in managing signal levels in testing environments, ensuring that equipment is not overloaded and maintaining accuracy during measurements. By using resistive elements, these devices provide a controlled reduction in signal strength, allowing for precise adjustments and calibration in EMI testing.
Shielding: Shielding is the process of protecting electronic components from electromagnetic interference (EMI) by enclosing them in a conductive or magnetic material. This method helps to reduce unwanted noise and maintain signal integrity by blocking or redirecting electromagnetic fields that can disrupt the normal functioning of electronic devices.
Shielding effectiveness testers: Shielding effectiveness testers are specialized instruments used to measure the ability of a shielding material or enclosure to block electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources. These testers evaluate how well a shield can protect sensitive electronic devices from unwanted EMI, which is crucial for ensuring compliance with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards.
Spectrum Analyzer: A spectrum analyzer is an electronic instrument that displays the amplitude of signals as they vary with frequency, allowing for the analysis of the frequency components of electrical signals. It plays a vital role in identifying and measuring electromagnetic interference (EMI) from various sources, including man-made devices, and evaluating the effectiveness of different filtering techniques.
Surge Generators: Surge generators are specialized devices used to create high-energy electrical transients, or surges, for testing the robustness and performance of electrical and electronic equipment under extreme conditions. These devices are essential in evaluating how equipment withstands voltage spikes and ensures compliance with electromagnetic interference standards. Surge generators help simulate real-world scenarios, like lightning strikes or power surges, which can cause significant damage to sensitive electronic systems.
Turntables and Antenna Masts: Turntables and antenna masts are essential components in EMI test setups, enabling controlled rotation and positioning of antennas during testing. Turntables provide the capability to rotate a device under test (DUT) or the antenna itself, allowing for optimal alignment to measure emissions or immunity accurately. Antenna masts are utilized to elevate antennas, ensuring they are positioned at appropriate heights and orientations to achieve reliable test results.
Voltage Measurements: Voltage measurements are the assessments of electric potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit. These measurements are crucial for understanding the behavior and performance of electronic devices, as they help in diagnosing issues related to electromagnetic interference and compatibility.