17.2 European maritime technology and early explorations
5 min read•july 30, 2024
European maritime advancements in the 15th century revolutionized exploration. Better ships, like caravels and carracks, along with improved navigation tools like compasses and astrolabes, allowed sailors to venture further than ever before. These innovations paved the way for groundbreaking voyages.
Portuguese and Spanish explorers led the charge, discovering new trade routes and lands. Their expeditions, driven by economic, religious, and political motives, reshaped global trade and power dynamics. The ushered in a new era of European dominance and cultural exchange.
Maritime Advancements for Exploration
Navigational Instruments
Top images from around the web for Navigational Instruments
Astrolabe when components are together showing the front | Wellcome Collection View original
The magnetic allowed for more precise navigation by determining cardinal directions
The dry compass was invented in Europe in the late 13th century, improving upon earlier Chinese designs
Enabled sailors to determine their heading even in overcast conditions or at night
The , an astronomical instrument used to determine latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or stars above the horizon
Improved upon by Muslim scholars (Al-Zarqali) and adopted by European navigators in the 15th century
Allowed for more accurate positioning and charting of routes
Ship Designs
The , a small, maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century
Combined square and lateen sails, allowing for better tacking against the wind
Enabled exploration of the Atlantic Ocean and the west coast of Africa
Used by Portuguese and Spanish explorers () during their expeditions
The , a larger, sturdier ship capable of long ocean voyages and carrying substantial cargo
Developed in the 15th century and used for trade and exploration
Had a higher freeboard and multiple decks, providing more space for crew and supplies
Allowed for longer voyages and the establishment of overseas trade routes
Cartography
Advancements in cartography enabled navigators to better plan their routes and record their discoveries
The creation of more accurate charts and maps, such as the portolan chart
The incorporation of newly discovered lands and navigational information into maps
The use of latitude and longitude for more precise positioning (although accurate longitude measurement remained a challenge)
The work of notable cartographers, such as Abraham Cresques and Jehuda Cresques (Catalan Atlas), contributed to the improvement of maritime navigation
European Expeditions in the Age of Exploration
Portuguese Explorations
Portuguese expeditions, led by Prince Henry the Navigator, began exploring the west coast of Africa in the early 15th century
Sought a sea route to Asia and established a trading post at Elmina for gold and slaves
Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) in 1488
Vasco da Gama became the first European to reach India by sea in 1498
Opened up direct trade with Asia and broke the Venetian monopoly on spices
Established Portuguese trading posts in India (Goa, Calicut) and Southeast Asia (Malacca)
Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil in 1500 while attempting to follow da Gama's route to India
Claimed Brazil for Portugal, initiating Portuguese colonization of South America
Spanish Voyages
Christopher Columbus, sponsored by Spain, made four voyages to the Americas between 1492 and 1504
Initiated European colonization of the New World and the
Explored the Caribbean islands, Central America, and northern coast of South America
Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe from 1519 to 1522
Demonstrated the vastness of the Pacific Ocean and the global connectedness of the world's oceans
completed the circumnavigation after Magellan's death in the Philippines
Spanish conquistadors, such as Hernán Cortés and , conquered the Aztec and Inca empires
Motivations for Exploration
Economic Factors
The desire to access lucrative trade routes and obtain valuable commodities drove much of the exploration
Spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves) from the East Indies were highly prized in Europe
Gold from West Africa and the Americas was a significant motivator
The slave trade became a major component of the Atlantic economy
The establishment of new markets for European goods and the potential for profitable trade were strong incentives
Religious and Cultural Motives
Religious zeal, particularly the desire to spread Christianity and counter the influence of Islam
Motivated some explorers and their sponsors, especially during the Iberian Reconquista
The Catholic Church supported the conversion of indigenous peoples in newly discovered lands
The Renaissance spirit of inquiry encouraged the pursuit of knowledge and the rediscovery of classical learning
Inspired explorers to seek out new lands, cultures, and scientific advancements
The desire to find the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John in the East
Political and Strategic Goals
The establishment of colonial empires and the acquisition of new territories
Expansion of national power, prestige, and influence on a global scale
Competition among European powers (Spain, Portugal, England, France) for dominance
The search for allies against rival powers, such as the Ottoman Empire
The desire to outflank the Ottomans and establish direct trade with Asia
The hope of finding Christian allies (Prester John) to counter Islamic influence
Impact of Exploration on Global Trade and Power
Transformation of Global Trade
The establishment of direct sea routes to Asia and the Americas revolutionized global trade
Broke the Venetian and Ottoman monopolies on the spice trade
Introduced new commodities (sugar, tobacco, coffee) to European markets
The Columbian Exchange led to a widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, technologies, and ideas
Had far-reaching ecological, agricultural, and demographic consequences
The introduction of New World crops (potatoes, maize) to Europe and Old World livestock (horses, cattle) to the Americas
The influx of precious metals from the Americas, particularly silver from Mexico and Peru
Led to significant economic changes in Europe, such as the Price Revolution and the growth of
Financed the expansion of European empires and increased global trade
Shift in European Power Dynamics
The (1494) and the (1529) divided the world into Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence
Set the stage for the development of vast colonial empires and increased rivalry among European powers
Established the principle of European territorial claims in the New World
The rise of Atlantic trade and the economic power of countries like Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and England
Challenged the traditional dominance of Mediterranean city-states and the Italian Renaissance
Shifted the center of European power westward and led to the emergence of new imperial powers
The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the weakening of Italian city-states
The loss of control over the spice trade and the economic decline of Venice and Genoa
The increasing influence of Northern European powers in the Mediterranean and the Levant
Key Terms to Review (15)
Age of Exploration: The Age of Exploration refers to the period from the late 15th century to the early 17th century when European powers embarked on extensive overseas exploration, leading to the discovery of new lands and sea routes. This era was characterized by cultural and technological exchanges that transformed societies globally, driven by advancements in maritime technology and the quest for trade routes, wealth, and territory.
Astrolabe: An astrolabe is an ancient astronomical instrument used for solving problems related to time and the position of the stars. It functions as a multifunctional tool for navigation, enabling mariners to determine their latitude by measuring the angle between the horizon and a celestial body, such as the sun or a star. This device was crucial for maritime navigation, especially during the height of trade and exploration across oceans.
Atlantic trade routes: Atlantic trade routes refer to the network of maritime paths used for trading goods and commodities between Europe, Africa, and the Americas during the Age of Exploration. These routes facilitated the exchange of a wide variety of products, including sugar, tobacco, rum, and enslaved people, significantly impacting economies and societies across the Atlantic world.
Caravel: A caravel is a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed in the 15th century, primarily by the Portuguese, for ocean exploration and trade. Its design allowed for long voyages and could sail closer to the wind compared to larger ships, making it crucial for early explorations along the African coast and across the Atlantic Ocean. The caravel's advanced rigging and sails contributed to its popularity among explorers during the Age of Discovery.
Carrack: A carrack is a large, multi-masted sailing ship that was prominent in European maritime trade and exploration during the late 15th to early 17th centuries. It combined features of earlier ship designs, offering greater capacity for cargo and crew, which made it essential for long-distance voyages, particularly during the Age of Discovery when European nations sought new trade routes and territories.
Christopher Columbus: Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer known for his voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, which led to the European awareness of the American continents. He is often credited with discovering the New World in 1492, initiating a period of exploration and colonization that significantly impacted global trade, culture, and the exchange of goods and ideas.
Columbian Exchange: The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, cultures, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) following Christopher Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century. This exchange had profound impacts on both sides of the Atlantic, reshaping diets, economies, and populations while introducing new crops and livestock to various regions.
Compass: A compass is a navigational instrument that shows the cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) and helps in determining geographic orientation. This device became a crucial tool for European maritime explorers during the Age of Discovery, enhancing their ability to navigate the oceans with greater accuracy and confidence.
Cultural Diffusion: Cultural diffusion is the process by which cultural beliefs, practices, ideas, and technologies spread from one society or group to another. This exchange often leads to the blending of cultures, influencing various aspects of life, including art, religion, language, and technology.
Francisco Pizarro: Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish conquistador known for his conquest of the Inca Empire in the early 16th century. His exploits were significant in shaping European interests in South America and directly contributed to the expansion of Spanish colonial power, showcasing the impact of European maritime technology and early explorations on indigenous civilizations.
Juan Sebastián Elcano: Juan Sebastián Elcano was a Spanish explorer best known for completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth between 1519 and 1522. His journey began as part of Ferdinand Magellan's expedition, and after Magellan's death, Elcano took command and successfully returned to Spain, proving the world was round and interconnected.
Mercantilism: Mercantilism is an economic theory that emphasizes the importance of accumulating wealth, particularly gold and silver, through a positive balance of trade and state intervention in the economy. This approach shaped policies that prioritized exports over imports and sought to establish colonies to provide raw materials and markets for manufactured goods. The practice influenced various global trade networks and interactions throughout history.
Treaty of Tordesillas: The Treaty of Tordesillas was an agreement between Spain and Portugal, signed in 1494, that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between the two countries along a meridian in the Atlantic Ocean. This treaty was crucial in shaping the colonial empires of both nations and was a result of competition for overseas exploration and trade during the Age of Discovery.
Treaty of Zaragoza: The Treaty of Zaragoza was an agreement signed in 1529 between Spain and Portugal that settled disputes over their respective claims to territories in the East Indies and defined their spheres of influence. This treaty followed the earlier Treaty of Tordesillas and aimed to clarify the division of newly discovered lands, allowing both countries to expand their maritime empires without conflict.
Triangular trade: Triangular trade refers to the transatlantic system of trade that developed in the 16th to 19th centuries, where goods and enslaved people were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This system created a triangular route that facilitated the movement of raw materials, manufactured goods, and human labor, significantly impacting global economies and societies. It was closely linked to the Columbian Exchange and heavily influenced by advancements in European maritime technology that enabled extensive exploration and exploitation of new territories.