🎭Dramaturgy Unit 4 – Greek & Roman Theatre: Origins & Impact

Origins and Cultural Context

• Greek theatre emerged from religious festivals honoring Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and theatre, in Athens around the 6th century BCE
• Early performances included dithyrambs, choral hymns sung and danced in honor of Dionysus, which evolved into more complex dramatic forms
• The Great Dionysia, an annual festival held in Athens, became the primary venue for theatrical competitions and performances
  • Playwrights would present a tetralogy, consisting of three tragedies and a satyr play, over the course of the festival
• Theatre served as a means of exploring political, social, and moral issues, as well as entertaining and educating the citizenry
• The Roman Republic adopted and adapted Greek theatre, with performances held during religious festivals and public events (ludi)
• Roman theatre incorporated more diverse genres, including comedy, mime, and pantomime, alongside tragedy
• Theatre in both cultures was closely tied to religion, politics, and social norms, reflecting and shaping the values of their respective societies

Key Playwrights and Works

• Aeschylus (525-456 BCE), considered the father of tragedy, introduced the second actor and reduced the role of the chorus
  • Notable works: The Oresteia trilogy (Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, The Eumenides), Seven Against Thebes, Prometheus Bound
• Sophocles (497-406 BCE) introduced the third actor and increased the size of the chorus
  • Notable works: Oedipus Rex, Antigone, Oedipus at Colonus, Electra
• Euripides (480-406 BCE) focused on human emotions and psychological realism, often featuring strong female characters and questioning traditional values
  • Notable works: Medea, The Bacchae, Hippolytus, The Trojan Women
• Aristophanes (446-386 BCE), the most famous writer of Old Comedy, known for his biting social and political satire
  • Notable works: The Frogs, Lysistrata, The Birds, The Clouds
• Menander (342-290 BCE), the most prominent representative of New Comedy, which focused on domestic themes and stock characters
  • Notable works: Dyskolos (The Grouch), Samia (The Woman from Samos), Epitrepontes (The Arbitration)
• Plautus (254-184 BCE) and Terence (195-159 BCE), Roman comic playwrights who adapted Greek New Comedy for Roman audiences
  • Notable works by Plautus: Miles Gloriosus (The Braggart Soldier), Aulularia (The Pot of Gold), Menaechmi (The Twin Brothers)
  • Notable works by Terence: The Brothers (Adelphoe), The Eunuch (Eunuchus), The Self-Tormentor (Heauton Timorumenos)
• Seneca the Younger (4 BCE-65 CE), the most influential Roman tragic playwright, whose works were characterized by rhetorical style and graphic violence
  • Notable works: Medea, Phaedra, Thyestes, Hercules Furens

Theatrical Spaces and Architecture

• Greek theatres were typically built on hillsides, using the natural slope for seating (theatron) and acoustic enhancement
• The performance space consisted of the orchestra (a circular dancing space for the chorus) and the skene (a wooden structure serving as a backdrop and changing area for actors)
• The skene eventually evolved into a more elaborate stone structure with columns and painted scenery
• The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, built in the 5th century BCE, could accommodate up to 17,000 spectators and served as a model for later Greek theatres
• Roman theatres were freestanding structures, often built near temples or as part of larger entertainment complexes
• The Roman stage (pulpitum) was longer and deeper than the Greek skene, with a raised platform for performances
• The scaenae frons, an elaborate multi-storied backdrop with columns, niches, and statues, became a defining feature of Roman theatres
• Notable examples of Roman theatres include the Theatre of Pompey in Rome, the Theatre of Marcellus, and the Theatre of Orange in France

Performance Styles and Techniques

• Greek actors, exclusively male, wore masks to portray different characters, including female roles
  • Masks helped to amplify the actor's voice and convey emotions to the large audience
• Actors used stylized gestures and movements to express character emotions and actions
• The chorus, a group of 12-15 performers, sang, danced, and provided commentary on the action, often representing the voice of the community
• Music, played on the aulos (a double-reed instrument) and the lyre, accompanied the performances
• Roman acting styles were more naturalistic compared to the stylized Greek performances
• Pantomime, a form of solo dance-drama, gained popularity in the Roman Empire, with performers using masks, gestures, and music to convey a story
• Mime, a form of comic theatre featuring stock characters and improvisation, often included acrobatics and slapstick humor
• Both Greek and Roman theatre relied on vocal projection and clear diction to ensure audibility in large outdoor spaces

Themes and Dramatic Structures

• Greek tragedies often explored themes of fate, justice, and the relationship between gods and mortals
  • The concept of hubris, excessive pride or defiance of the gods, frequently led to the protagonist's downfall
• The dramatic structure of Greek tragedy typically included a prologue, episodes (scenes) alternating with choral odes (stasimon), and an exodus (concluding scene)
• The unity of action, where the plot focuses on a central conflict and its resolution, was a key principle in Greek drama
• Greek comedies, particularly Old Comedy, satirized contemporary politics, society, and individuals, often featuring fantastical plots and bawdy humor
  • New Comedy focused on domestic themes, love stories, and stock characters (the young lover, the cunning slave, the stern father)
• Roman tragedies, influenced by Greek models, often depicted mythological subjects and emphasized rhetorical speeches and moral lessons
• Roman comedies, adapted from Greek New Comedy, featured intricate plots, stock characters, and social commentary on relationships and family life
• Both cultures used dramatic irony, where the audience knows more than the characters, to create tension and emotional impact

Masks, Costumes, and Stagecraft

• Masks were an essential element of Greek theatre, allowing actors to portray multiple characters and convey exaggerated emotions
  • Tragic masks had stylized features and expressions, while comic masks were more grotesque and caricatured
• Costumes in Greek theatre were simple and symbolic, indicating character types and social status
  • Tragic actors wore long robes (chiton) and high boots (cothurni), while comic actors wore short tunics and socks (soccus)
• The mechane, a crane-like device, was used to lift actors playing gods or heroes, representing their divine status or supernatural abilities
• The ekkyklema, a wheeled platform, was used to reveal interior scenes or display dead bodies
• Roman theatre adopted many aspects of Greek stagecraft, but with a greater emphasis on spectacle and elaborate stage effects
• The auleum, a curtain raised from the stage floor, was used to reveal or conceal the stage in Roman theatre
• Painted scenery, movable backdrops, and stage machinery became more sophisticated in Roman theatre, allowing for quick scene changes and impressive visual effects

Societal Role and Influence

• Greek theatre served as a means of civic education, promoting shared values and addressing social and political issues
  • Attendance at the Great Dionysia was considered a civic duty, with the state subsidizing tickets for poorer citizens
• Theatre provided a platform for public discourse and debate, with plays often reflecting and critiquing contemporary events and figures
• The competitive nature of theatrical festivals encouraged innovation and excellence among playwrights and actors
• Roman theatre, while still tied to religious festivals and public events, became more focused on entertainment and spectacle
• The state subsidized theatrical performances and used them as a means of political propaganda and social control
• Theatre in both cultures contributed to the development of literary and artistic traditions, influencing later European drama and culture
• The plays and theatrical practices of ancient Greece and Rome provide insight into their respective societies' values, beliefs, and social structures

Legacy and Modern Adaptations

• The works of ancient Greek and Roman playwrights have been translated, adapted, and performed continuously since their creation
• The influence of classical drama can be seen in the works of Renaissance playwrights such as Shakespeare and Racine, who drew on mythological themes and dramatic structures
• Modern adaptations of Greek tragedies, such as Jean Anouilh's Antigone (1944) and Eugene O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), reinterpret classic stories in contemporary contexts
• The principles of Greek and Roman theatre, such as the use of masks, chorus, and stylized acting, have been incorporated into various modern theatrical traditions and experimental productions
  • Examples include the Japanese Noh theatre, the Indonesian Wayang topeng, and the works of directors such as Peter Brook and Ariane Mnouchkine
• The amphitheatre design of Greek and Roman theatres has influenced the construction of modern performance spaces and stadiums
• The study of classical drama remains a core component of theatre education and academic research, with scholars and practitioners continuing to explore its relevance and impact
• Film and television adaptations of Greek and Roman plays, such as Pier Paolo Pasolini's Medea (1969) and the BBC series I, Claudius (1976), bring these stories to new audiences and reinterpret them through modern media
• The enduring legacy of ancient Greek and Roman theatre testifies to the universality of its themes, the power of its storytelling, and its ongoing influence on global culture and the performing arts