1.2 Historical Development of Criminology
4 min read•july 22, 2024
Criminology has evolved significantly since the 18th century, with various schools of thought shaping our understanding of criminal behavior. From the 's focus on free will to the 's emphasis on urban ecology, each perspective has contributed to the field's development.
Today, criminologists draw on a rich history of theories to address contemporary issues. Modern approaches blend historical insights with new research, tackling challenges like and while still grappling with age-old questions about the nature of crime and justice.
Historical Foundations of Criminology
Evolution of criminological thought
Top images from around the web for Evolution of criminological thought
Resistance and the Radical Imagination: A Reflection on the Role of the Critical Criminologist ... View original
Is this image relevant?
Classical Sociological Theory and Foundations of American Sociology – Simple Book Publishing View original
Is this image relevant?
Positivist school (criminology) - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Resistance and the Radical Imagination: A Reflection on the Role of the Critical Criminologist ... View original
Is this image relevant?
Classical Sociological Theory and Foundations of American Sociology – Simple Book Publishing View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Evolution of criminological thought
Resistance and the Radical Imagination: A Reflection on the Role of the Critical Criminologist ... View original
Is this image relevant?
Classical Sociological Theory and Foundations of American Sociology – Simple Book Publishing View original
Is this image relevant?
Positivist school (criminology) - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Resistance and the Radical Imagination: A Reflection on the Role of the Critical Criminologist ... View original
Is this image relevant?
Classical Sociological Theory and Foundations of American Sociology – Simple Book Publishing View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Classical School (18th century) emphasized free will, rationality, and in understanding criminal behavior
- and were key proponents
- Argued for between crime and punishment (e.g., lesser punishments for minor offenses)
- (19th century) focused on biological, psychological, and social factors influencing criminal behavior
- , , and were major contributors
- Adopted a deterministic view of criminal behavior (i.e., criminals are born, not made)
- Chicago School (early 20th century) emphasized urban ecology and its impact on crime
- , , and developed
- Studied how neighborhood characteristics (poverty, residential instability) contribute to crime
- Sociological theories (mid-20th century) examined social structures and processes influencing criminal behavior
- () explained how societal pressure to achieve success can lead to deviance
- Social control theory () focused on the role of social bonds in preventing delinquency
- () posited that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others
- (1970s-present) challenged traditional assumptions and power structures in society
- analyzed crime as a product of capitalist exploitation and inequality
- examined the gendered nature of crime and the criminal justice system
- Racial and ethnic perspectives highlighted the disproportionate impact of the justice system on marginalized communities
- Developmental and (1990s-present) studied the onset, persistence, and desistance of criminal behavior over time
- 's dual taxonomy distinguished between adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent offenders
- 's age-graded theory of informal social control emphasized the role of turning points (marriage, employment) in desistance from crime
Key figures in criminology
- Cesare Beccaria argued for clear and consistent laws, proportional punishments, and the abolition of torture in his influential work "" (1764)
- developed the concept of , a state of normlessness in society, in his works "" (1893) and "" (1897)
- Argued that crime is a normal and necessary part of society, serving functions such as reinforcing collective sentiments
- Robert Merton developed strain theory in his article "" (1938)
- Explained how societal pressure to achieve success can lead to deviance when legitimate means are blocked
- Introduced the concept of anomie as a state of discrepancy between cultural goals and legitimate means to achieve them
Societal Changes and Criminological Development
Societal changes and criminological theory
- Industrialization and urbanization led to the development of the Chicago School and social disorganization theory
- Increased focus on the relationship between urban environment (overcrowding, poverty) and crime
- and social unrest sparked the development of critical criminology
- Marxist and feminist perspectives challenged traditional assumptions about crime and justice
- Drew attention to the role of race, ethnicity, and gender in the criminal justice system (racial profiling, sentencing disparities)
- Globalization and technological advancements influenced the study of transnational crime and cybercrime
- Highlighted the need for international cooperation in addressing crime (Interpol, extradition treaties)
Historical perspectives vs contemporary issues
- Classical School principles remain relevant in modern sentencing policies
- Deterrence and proportionality of punishments continue to shape criminal justice practices (sentencing guidelines, three-strikes laws)
- Emphasis on free will and rationality influences the criminal justice system (mens rea requirement, insanity defense)
- Positivist School contributions inform contemporary research and practice
- The study of biological (genetic predispositions), psychological (personality disorders), and social factors (peer influence) in criminal behavior remains important
- Risk assessment tools and offender rehabilitation programs draw from positivist ideas (actuarial risk assessment, cognitive-behavioral therapy)
- Chicago School and social disorganization theory still relevant in understanding neighborhood-level crime
- Informs community-based crime prevention strategies (neighborhood watch programs) and policing practices (hot spots policing)
- Sociological theories continue to guide research and policy
- Strain, social control, and differential association theories provide a foundation for understanding the complex social processes that influence criminal behavior
- Inform prevention and intervention strategies (after-school programs, mentoring initiatives) and criminal justice reforms (alternatives to incarceration)
Key Terms to Review (36)
Anomie: Anomie is a sociological term that refers to a state of normlessness or breakdown of social norms and values within a society. It occurs when individuals feel disconnected from the collective conscience, leading to feelings of alienation and disorientation. Anomie often arises in times of social upheaval or rapid change, influencing behaviors and contributing to deviance and crime.
Cesare Beccaria: Cesare Beccaria was an Italian philosopher and criminologist, known for his influential work 'On Crimes and Punishments' published in 1764. He is often regarded as a pioneer of the classical school of criminology, advocating for a rational and systematic approach to understanding crime and punishment, emphasizing deterrence, proportionality in sentencing, and the rights of individuals against arbitrary power.
Cesare Lombroso: Cesare Lombroso was an Italian physician and criminologist, often regarded as the father of modern criminology, who proposed that criminal behavior could be attributed to biological factors, suggesting that certain individuals are born criminals. His theories connected biological determinism with criminality, positioning Lombroso's work at the forefront of early psychological and physiological explanations for criminal behavior.
Chicago School: The Chicago School refers to a group of early 20th-century sociologists based at the University of Chicago who focused on understanding urban life and its relationship to crime and social behavior. Their work laid the foundation for the field of criminology by emphasizing the importance of social environment and ecological factors in influencing criminal behavior, thereby reshaping how crime is studied and understood.
Civil rights movement: The civil rights movement was a social and political movement in the United States aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans, primarily during the 1950s and 1960s. It sought to dismantle institutionalized racism and enforce civil rights legislation, reshaping American society by challenging segregation, voting rights violations, and discriminatory practices.
Classical school: The classical school refers to a philosophical framework in criminology that emerged in the late 18th century, emphasizing rational choice and free will as the primary factors influencing criminal behavior. This approach posits that individuals weigh the potential benefits and consequences of their actions before engaging in crime, advocating for a legal system that deters crime through proportionate punishment.
Critical criminology: Critical criminology is an approach that examines crime through a lens of social inequality and power dynamics, focusing on how societal structures and institutions contribute to criminal behavior and the criminal justice system. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the context in which crime occurs, including issues of race, class, gender, and global influences, thereby revealing the broader social and political forces at play.
Cybercrime: Cybercrime refers to illegal activities that are carried out using computers or the internet, often involving theft, fraud, or the disruption of digital systems. This type of crime has evolved significantly with the advancement of technology, and its impact can be seen in various contexts, including global criminal networks and the historical development of law enforcement practices. The scope of cybercrime is vast, affecting individuals, businesses, and governments, and it often transcends national borders, making it a critical issue in modern criminology.
Deterrence: Deterrence is a strategy aimed at preventing criminal behavior by instilling fear of punishment or consequences in potential offenders. This concept is rooted in the belief that individuals make rational choices, weighing the benefits and risks of their actions before committing crimes. Deterrence plays a significant role in shaping laws, sentencing practices, and the overall understanding of crime and its prevention.
Developmental theories: Developmental theories are frameworks that seek to explain the processes of human growth and change over time, particularly how these processes can influence behaviors such as criminal activity. These theories emphasize the role of social, psychological, and biological factors throughout different life stages, suggesting that individual development plays a crucial part in understanding why certain individuals engage in criminal behavior. By analyzing the interactions between various influences during formative years, developmental theories provide insight into the timing and nature of delinquency and its potential transformation into more serious crime.
Differential Association Theory: Differential association theory is a sociological concept that suggests criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. This theory posits that individuals learn values, attitudes, and techniques of crime from those they associate with, particularly from close and influential relationships. It highlights the role of social environments in shaping behavior, connecting deeply to the understanding of juvenile delinquency, white-collar crime, social learning processes, and the historical evolution of criminological thought.
Edwin Sutherland: Edwin Sutherland was an influential American sociologist known primarily for his work on white-collar crime and his development of differential association theory. He introduced the concept of white-collar crime to highlight that crime is not only a phenomenon of the lower classes but also prevalent among individuals in higher social positions, often committed in the context of their professional lives. His theories reshaped the understanding of crime and deviance, emphasizing that criminal behavior can be learned through interactions within social groups.
émile durkheim: Émile Durkheim was a French sociologist and one of the founding figures of modern criminology and sociology, known for his study of social facts and collective behavior. His work laid the groundwork for understanding crime as a social phenomenon, emphasizing that societal factors play a crucial role in shaping individual behavior and deviance. Durkheim's theories revolutionized the way crime is perceived, moving beyond individual morality to include the influence of social structures and norms.
Enrico Ferri: Enrico Ferri was an influential Italian criminologist, sociologist, and a key figure in the development of the positivist school of criminology during the late 19th century. He is best known for his emphasis on the scientific study of crime, advocating that criminal behavior is determined by social and environmental factors rather than free will. Ferri's contributions significantly shaped modern criminological thought and highlighted the importance of integrating social sciences into the study of criminal behavior.
Ernest Burgess: Ernest Burgess was a sociologist known for his contributions to urban sociology and criminology in the early 20th century. He is best recognized for developing the Concentric Zone Model, which illustrates how different social groups are organized spatially within a city and how this relates to crime and social issues. His work laid the foundation for understanding the relationship between urban environments and criminal behavior.
Feminist criminology: Feminist criminology is a theoretical perspective that examines the intersection of gender and crime, focusing on how societal norms and structures shape women's experiences with crime as both victims and offenders. This approach critiques traditional criminology for its male-centric views, arguing that understanding crime requires acknowledging how gender inequality influences criminal behavior and victimization.
Globalization: Globalization is the process of increased interconnectedness and interdependence among countries, driven by advancements in trade, technology, and communication. This phenomenon enables goods, services, information, and culture to flow more freely across borders, shaping economies and societies worldwide. Its impact is profound, influencing various domains such as crime, politics, and culture while creating new challenges and opportunities for governance and regulation.
Industrial revolution: The industrial revolution refers to the major transformation in manufacturing, agriculture, and transportation that began in the late 18th century and continued into the 19th century. This period marked a shift from agrarian economies to industrialized ones, leading to urbanization, technological advancements, and significant social changes. The industrial revolution played a crucial role in shaping modern society and had profound implications for crime and criminal behavior.
Jeremy Bentham: Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and social reformer best known for founding the theory of utilitarianism, which suggests that the best actions are those that maximize happiness for the greatest number of people. His ideas significantly influenced criminology by promoting the notion that rationality and the pursuit of pleasure can explain criminal behavior and guide punishment.
Life-course theories: Life-course theories are frameworks that examine the development of criminal behavior over an individual's lifetime, emphasizing how various factors influence this trajectory. These theories highlight the interplay between personal choices, social relationships, and historical contexts, suggesting that crime is not merely a result of static traits but rather evolves through different stages of life influenced by changing circumstances.
Louis Wirth: Louis Wirth was an influential American sociologist known for his work on urban sociology and the concept of urbanism. His research focused on how urban environments shape social relationships and individual behavior, contributing significantly to the understanding of the social dynamics in cities, which is a crucial aspect of criminology.
Marxist Criminology: Marxist criminology is a theoretical framework that examines crime through the lens of class struggle and the impacts of capitalism. It argues that crime is a product of social inequality and economic exploitation, suggesting that the ruling class creates laws to maintain their power while criminalizing the behaviors of the working class. This perspective connects to the historical development of criminology by emphasizing how socio-economic factors influence criminal behavior and the societal response to crime.
On Crimes and Punishments: On Crimes and Punishments is a pivotal work by Cesare Beccaria, published in 1764, that laid the foundation for modern criminal justice systems. This book argues against torture and the death penalty, advocating for proportionate punishments that fit the crime, and emphasizes the importance of prevention over punishment. The ideas presented in this work significantly influenced the development of legal systems and reform movements across Europe and America.
Positivist school: The positivist school is a theoretical framework in criminology that emphasizes the use of scientific methods and empirical evidence to understand criminal behavior. It argues that criminality is determined by factors beyond individual control, such as biological, psychological, and social influences, promoting the idea that crime can be studied objectively and systematically.
Proportionality: Proportionality refers to the principle that the severity of a punishment or legal consequence should be directly related to the seriousness of the crime committed. This concept ensures that legal responses are fair and just, preventing excessive penalties that do not correspond to the nature of the offense. It is a foundational idea in the justice system that supports equitable treatment under the law.
Raffaele Garofalo: Raffaele Garofalo was an influential Italian criminologist who is often regarded as one of the founding figures of modern criminology. He introduced the concept of 'moral anomaly' to explain criminal behavior, emphasizing the role of social and psychological factors in understanding crime, and his work marked a significant departure from purely biological or deterministic views of criminality.
Robert Merton: Robert Merton was an influential American sociologist known for his contributions to the understanding of social structure and its relationship to deviance. His work laid the foundation for many theories in criminology, particularly through the development of Strain Theory, which explains how societal pressures can lead individuals to commit crimes. Merton’s insights into the disjunction between cultural goals and the means available to achieve them are pivotal in examining how society influences criminal behavior.
Robert Park: Robert Park was a prominent American sociologist known for his influential contributions to urban sociology and criminology in the early 20th century. He played a key role in the Chicago School of Sociology, emphasizing the importance of social environment in understanding human behavior, particularly in urban settings, which is crucial for analyzing crime and social order.
Sampson and Laub: Sampson and Laub are criminologists known for their work on life-course criminology, particularly their theories regarding the development of criminal behavior over an individual's lifetime. They proposed that there are two distinct pathways to offending: life-course persistent offenders, who engage in criminal activity consistently from childhood into adulthood, and adolescence-limited offenders, who only commit crimes during their teenage years. Their research emphasizes the impact of social bonds and life events on criminal behavior, linking personal development with societal influences.
Social Disorganization Theory: Social disorganization theory suggests that a person's environment plays a significant role in shaping their behavior, especially in relation to crime and deviance. It emphasizes how societal structures and community conditions—like poverty, residential instability, and lack of social cohesion—can lead to higher crime rates and delinquency, especially among youth. This theory connects to broader concepts of community strength, informal social control, and the influence of socioeconomic factors on criminal behavior.
Social structure and anomie: Social structure and anomie refers to the concept that societal norms and values can become weakened or disrupted in times of social upheaval, leading to a breakdown in social order and increased deviance. This idea connects to how societal pressures can influence individual behavior, particularly when individuals feel disconnected from the goals and means of society, resulting in feelings of normlessness or anomie.
Strain theory: Strain theory is a sociological perspective that posits that societal pressures and the inability to achieve culturally approved goals can lead individuals to engage in deviant behavior, including crime. This theory highlights how the disconnect between societal expectations and the means available to individuals, particularly in disadvantaged groups, can result in feelings of frustration, anger, and ultimately, criminal activity. It connects various fields of criminology by explaining how social structures contribute to crime rates.
Suicide: Suicide is the intentional act of ending one's own life, often stemming from mental health issues, emotional distress, or overwhelming circumstances. It has been a significant subject of study within criminology, as it intersects with various social, legal, and psychological factors. Understanding suicide in a historical context reveals changing societal perceptions and the evolution of responses to mental health and well-being.
Terrie Moffitt: Terrie Moffitt is a prominent clinical psychologist known for her groundbreaking work in the fields of developmental psychology and criminology, particularly her dual taxonomy theory of adolescent development. Her research highlights different pathways to delinquency, emphasizing how both individual traits and environmental influences shape behavioral outcomes. Moffitt's work is significant for understanding the complex interplay between biology and social context in the development of antisocial behavior.
The division of labour in society: The division of labour in society refers to the way in which tasks are allocated among different individuals or groups to improve efficiency and productivity. This concept is central to understanding how social structures, economic systems, and criminal behaviors evolve as societies develop. By breaking down work into specialized roles, societies can increase output and foster interdependence among individuals, but this can also lead to social stratification and disparities that may influence criminal activity.
Travis Hirschi: Travis Hirschi is a prominent criminologist known for his contributions to control theories of crime, particularly through his work 'Causes of Delinquency' published in 1969. He posited that strong social bonds with family, school, and community serve as deterrents against delinquency and criminal behavior. Hirschi’s work has significantly influenced the understanding of how socialization affects deviant behavior and the role of external controls in maintaining societal order.