🕵️Crime and Human Development Unit 4 – Environmental Factors in Crime Development

Key Concepts and Theories

• Social disorganization theory proposes that crime rates are higher in neighborhoods with weak social ties, lack of informal social control, and physical deterioration
• Routine activities theory suggests that crime occurs when a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians converge in time and space
  • Includes factors such as the presence of valuable items (suitable targets), lack of security or surveillance (absence of capable guardians), and individuals prone to commit crimes (motivated offenders)
• Broken windows theory posits that visible signs of disorder and neglect in a neighborhood, such as broken windows or graffiti, can lead to increased crime rates by signaling a lack of social control
• Strain theory asserts that individuals may turn to crime when they experience a discrepancy between their goals and the legitimate means available to achieve them
  • Can manifest as financial strain (poverty), educational strain (lack of access to quality education), or social strain (lack of social support or resources)
• Life course theory examines how individual experiences and environmental factors shape criminal behavior over the course of an individual's life, considering key transitions and turning points
• Ecological systems theory considers the complex interplay of individual, family, community, and societal factors that influence criminal behavior, emphasizing the importance of understanding the broader context in which crime occurs

Environmental Risk Factors

• Exposure to violence in the home or community can increase the likelihood of future criminal behavior by normalizing aggression and providing negative role models
• Lack of access to quality education and resources can limit opportunities for positive development and increase the risk of criminal involvement
  • Includes factors such as underfunded schools, high dropout rates, and limited extracurricular activities
• Poverty and economic deprivation can create strain and motivate individuals to engage in criminal activities as a means of obtaining resources or coping with financial stress
• Presence of gangs and organized crime in a neighborhood can provide a social structure that encourages and facilitates criminal behavior, particularly among youth seeking a sense of belonging
• High levels of residential mobility and transience can weaken social ties and informal social control, making it more difficult for communities to regulate behavior and prevent crime
• Exposure to environmental toxins, such as lead or air pollution, has been linked to increased aggression and impulsivity, which may contribute to criminal behavior
• Lack of access to mental health services and substance abuse treatment can exacerbate underlying issues that may lead to criminal involvement, particularly among individuals with co-occurring disorders

Family Dynamics and Crime

• Parental criminality can increase the risk of offspring engaging in criminal behavior through genetic influences, social learning, and the normalization of deviant behavior within the family
• Child maltreatment, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, can lead to a range of adverse outcomes, including increased risk of criminal behavior in adolescence and adulthood
  • Maltreatment can disrupt attachment, emotional regulation, and social development, increasing vulnerability to delinquency and crime
• Parental substance abuse can create an unstable and chaotic home environment, expose children to criminal behavior, and increase the risk of child maltreatment and neglect
• Single-parent households may face additional stressors and challenges, such as financial strain and reduced parental supervision, which can increase the risk of juvenile delinquency
  • However, the quality of parenting and the presence of other supportive adults can mitigate this risk
• Domestic violence in the home can have a profound impact on children's development and increase the risk of future criminal behavior, both as perpetrators and victims
• Lack of parental monitoring and supervision can provide opportunities for children and adolescents to engage in delinquent behavior and associate with deviant peers
• Family conflict and dysfunction, such as high levels of criticism, hostility, and inconsistent discipline, can contribute to the development of antisocial behavior and increase the risk of criminal involvement

Neighborhood Effects

• Concentrated disadvantage, characterized by high levels of poverty, unemployment, and single-parent households, can create a context that fosters criminal behavior and limits opportunities for positive development
• Social cohesion and collective efficacy, or the willingness of residents to intervene for the common good, can help to prevent crime by increasing informal social control and promoting a sense of community
  • Neighborhoods with high levels of social cohesion and collective efficacy tend to have lower crime rates
• Physical disorder, such as abandoned buildings, graffiti, and litter, can signal a lack of social control and increase the perception that crime is tolerated, leading to higher crime rates (broken windows theory)
• Availability of alcohol outlets and drug markets can contribute to substance abuse, violence, and other criminal activities within a neighborhood
  • The presence of these establishments can also attract non-residents who may engage in criminal behavior
• Lack of recreational facilities and green spaces can limit opportunities for positive youth development and increase the likelihood of delinquency and crime
  • Access to safe, well-maintained parks and community centers can provide alternatives to criminal activity
• Residential segregation and isolation can concentrate poverty, limit access to resources and opportunities, and foster a sense of marginalization that may contribute to criminal behavior
• High levels of police presence and aggressive policing tactics can erode trust between residents and law enforcement, leading to a reluctance to report crimes and cooperate with investigations, ultimately undermining community safety

Socioeconomic Influences

• Income inequality can create a sense of relative deprivation and strain, motivating individuals to engage in criminal behavior as a means of obtaining resources or status
• Unemployment and underemployment can limit legitimate opportunities for financial stability and increase the appeal of criminal activities as a source of income
  • Lack of stable employment can also weaken social bonds and increase unstructured time, which may facilitate criminal behavior
• Limited access to quality healthcare, including mental health services, can exacerbate underlying conditions that may contribute to criminal behavior, such as untreated mental illness or substance abuse disorders
• Inadequate housing and homelessness can expose individuals to high-risk environments, increase stress and instability, and limit access to supportive services, all of which may increase the likelihood of criminal involvement
• Lack of transportation can limit access to employment, education, and other resources that promote positive development and reduce the risk of criminal behavior
  • Inadequate public transportation or the inability to afford private transportation can also increase exposure to high-crime areas
• Discrimination and social exclusion based on race, ethnicity, or other characteristics can limit opportunities, foster a sense of alienation, and contribute to criminal behavior as a means of coping or seeking status
• Intergenerational transmission of poverty can perpetuate a cycle of disadvantage, limiting access to resources and opportunities that could prevent criminal involvement across generations

Peer Groups and Delinquency

• Peer influence and pressure can encourage individuals to engage in delinquent or criminal behavior, particularly during adolescence when peer relationships are highly salient
  • The desire for acceptance and status within a peer group can motivate individuals to conform to group norms, even if those norms involve criminal activity
• Deviant peer associations can provide opportunities for learning criminal skills and techniques, as well as exposure to attitudes and values that support criminal behavior (differential association theory)
• Gang involvement can offer a sense of belonging, protection, and status, but also increase exposure to violence, drug use, and other criminal activities
  • Gangs can also provide a social structure that rewards and reinforces criminal behavior
• Peer rejection and social isolation can increase the risk of delinquency and crime by limiting opportunities for positive social interactions and increasing vulnerability to deviant peer influences
• Unstructured socializing with peers, particularly in the absence of adult supervision, can provide opportunities for delinquent behavior and increase the likelihood of criminal involvement
• Peer norms and attitudes that condone or glorify criminal behavior can create a social context in which crime is seen as acceptable or desirable, increasing the risk of individual involvement in criminal activity
• Positive peer influences and prosocial peer groups can serve as a protective factor, promoting healthy development and reducing the risk of criminal behavior by providing support, modeling appropriate behavior, and reinforcing positive values

Educational Environment

• School climate, including factors such as student-teacher relationships, academic expectations, and feelings of safety and belonging, can influence the likelihood of delinquency and crime
  • Positive school climates characterized by supportive relationships and high expectations can reduce the risk of criminal behavior
• Academic achievement and educational attainment can serve as protective factors, providing opportunities for future success and increasing attachment to conventional norms and values
  • Conversely, academic failure and disengagement from school can increase the risk of delinquency and crime
• School discipline policies and practices, such as zero-tolerance policies and exclusionary discipline (suspensions and expulsions), can contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline by increasing the likelihood of criminal justice system involvement
• Bullying and school violence can create a hostile environment that increases stress, erodes feelings of safety, and contributes to the development of aggressive or delinquent behavior
  • Both perpetrators and victims of bullying are at increased risk for criminal involvement
• Lack of extracurricular activities and after-school programs can limit opportunities for positive youth development and increase unsupervised time, which may facilitate delinquent behavior
• Teacher expectations and biases can influence student outcomes and contribute to disparities in academic achievement and disciplinary practices, which may indirectly impact the risk of criminal involvement
• School resource officers (SROs) and the presence of law enforcement in schools can increase the likelihood of arrests and formal criminal justice system involvement for student misbehavior, particularly among minority students and those with disabilities

Media and Technology Impact

• Exposure to violent media content, such as video games, movies, and television shows, can increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors, particularly among individuals with pre-existing risk factors for aggression
• Social media can facilitate the spread of criminal behavior by providing a platform for sharing information, recruiting accomplices, and glorifying criminal acts
  • Social media can also be used to bully, harass, or exploit others, which may contribute to the development of criminal behavior
• Cybercrime, including hacking, identity theft, and online fraud, has become increasingly prevalent with the growth of technology and the internet
  • The anonymity and global reach of the internet can make it easier for individuals to engage in criminal behavior online
• Media portrayal of crime and criminal justice can shape public perceptions and attitudes, influencing support for punitive policies and contributing to stereotypes and biases that may impact criminal justice outcomes
• Access to technology and the internet can provide opportunities for positive development, such as education and social connection, but can also increase exposure to inappropriate or harmful content
• Excessive screen time and technology use can interfere with healthy development, limiting opportunities for physical activity, face-to-face social interaction, and the development of important life skills
• Technology can also be used as a tool for prevention and intervention, such as through the use of GPS monitoring for offenders, online counseling and support services, and social media campaigns to promote positive behavior and reduce crime

Prevention and Intervention Strategies

• Early childhood intervention programs, such as home visiting and high-quality preschool, can promote healthy development and reduce the risk of future criminal behavior by addressing risk factors and building protective factors
• Family-based interventions, such as parent training and family therapy, can improve family functioning, reduce conflict, and increase parental monitoring and supervision, all of which can reduce the risk of delinquency and crime
• School-based prevention programs, such as social-emotional learning curricula and positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS), can promote prosocial behavior, reduce disciplinary problems, and improve academic outcomes
• Community-based interventions, such as mentoring programs and after-school activities, can provide opportunities for positive youth development, increase social support, and reduce exposure to risk factors for criminal behavior
• Restorative justice approaches, which focus on repairing harm and rebuilding relationships, can reduce recidivism and promote accountability and reintegration for offenders
  • Restorative practices, such as victim-offender mediation and community conferencing, can also address the needs of victims and communities affected by crime
• Substance abuse prevention and treatment programs can reduce the risk of criminal behavior associated with drug and alcohol use by addressing underlying substance use disorders and promoting recovery
• Mental health interventions, including access to counseling and therapy, can address underlying mental health issues that may contribute to criminal behavior and promote emotional well-being and resilience
• Policies and practices that address social and economic inequalities, such as increasing access to quality education, healthcare, and employment opportunities, can reduce the structural and systemic factors that contribute to crime and promote positive community development