2.3 Early adulthood and criminal behavior
12 min read•august 21, 2024
Early adulthood marks a crucial period for criminal behavior. This stage, typically from 18 to 30, involves significant changes in brain development, social roles, and legal responsibilities. Understanding these factors is key to grasping why crime rates often peak during this time.
Criminal patterns in early adulthood are influenced by a mix of biological, psychological, and social factors. These include ongoing brain maturation, , , and economic pressures. Recognizing these complex interactions helps explain the diverse pathways to criminal involvement or in young adults.
Defining early adulthood
- Encompasses a critical period of development in human life characterized by significant physical, cognitive, and social changes
- Marks the transition from adolescence to adulthood, with implications for criminal behavior and personal responsibility
- Involves complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors that shape individual behavior and decision-making
Age range considerations
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- Typically spans from late teens to late twenties or early thirties (18-30 years old)
- Varies across cultures and societies, influenced by social norms and legal definitions
- Can be further divided into emerging adulthood (18-25) and young adulthood (26-35)
- Biological markers include completion of physical growth and brain maturation
Developmental milestones
- Achieving independence from parents and establishing separate households
- Forming long-term romantic relationships and potentially starting families
- Entering the workforce full-time and developing career paths
- Solidifying personal identity and values
- Assuming increased legal and social responsibilities
Societal expectations
- Completing formal education or vocational training
- Becoming financially self-sufficient and contributing to the economy
- Engaging in civic duties (voting, community involvement)
- Adhering to social norms and legal standards
- Developing mature interpersonal relationships and social networks
Criminal behavior patterns
- Represent a significant concern during early adulthood due to increased autonomy and risk-taking behaviors
- Influenced by a combination of individual, social, and environmental factors
- Often peak during late adolescence and early adulthood before declining with age ()
Types of offenses
- Property crimes (theft, burglary, vandalism)
- Violent crimes (assault, robbery, domestic violence)
- Drug-related offenses (possession, distribution)
- White-collar crimes (fraud, embezzlement)
- Cybercrime (hacking, identity theft, online harassment)
Frequency vs severity
- Higher frequency of less severe offenses (petty theft, disorderly conduct)
- Lower frequency but potentially higher impact of severe crimes (homicide, sexual assault)
- Chronic offenders may engage in both frequent and severe criminal activities
- First-time offenders more likely to commit less severe crimes
- Escalation patterns from minor to more serious offenses over time
Gender differences
- Males generally exhibit higher rates of criminal behavior across most offense categories
- Females show increasing involvement in certain types of crimes (drug offenses, fraud)
- Gender gap in violent crimes remains significant, with males more likely to be perpetrators
- Females more often involved in status offenses and prostitution-related crimes
- Different pathways to criminal behavior influenced by socialization and opportunity structures
Biological factors
- Play a crucial role in shaping behavior during early adulthood through neurological and physiological processes
- Interact with environmental factors to influence criminal tendencies and decision-making
- Contribute to individual differences in impulse control, aggression, and
Brain development
- Prefrontal cortex continues to mature until mid-20s, affecting judgment and impulse control
- Limbic system (emotion regulation) develops faster than cognitive control regions
- Neuroplasticity allows for both positive and negative behavioral adaptations
- Imbalance between reward-seeking and inhibitory control systems during this period
- Structural and functional changes in brain regions associated with decision-making and social cognition
Hormonal influences
- Testosterone levels peak in early adulthood, potentially contributing to aggressive behaviors
- Cortisol fluctuations affect stress responses and risk-taking behaviors
- Dopamine system changes influence reward-seeking and addictive tendencies
- Serotonin imbalances may contribute to impulsivity and mood disorders
- Oxytocin and vasopressin play roles in social bonding and attachment behaviors
Genetic predispositions
- Heritability estimates for antisocial behavior range from 40-60%
- Specific genes (MAOA, DRD4) associated with increased risk for aggressive or impulsive behaviors
- Gene-environment interactions (GxE) modulate expression of genetic vulnerabilities
- Epigenetic mechanisms allow for environmental influences on gene expression
- Polygenic risk scores emerging as tools for assessing cumulative genetic risk for criminal behavior
Psychological influences
- Shape individual perceptions, motivations, and decision-making processes related to criminal behavior
- Interact with biological and social factors to create unique behavioral patterns
- Can serve as both risk and in the development of criminal tendencies
Identity formation
- Exploration of various social roles and personal values
- Development of a coherent sense of self and place in society
- Potential identity crises leading to increased vulnerability to negative influences
- Formation of moral identity and its impact on ethical decision-making
- Influence of cultural and subcultural identities on behavioral choices
Risk-taking tendencies
- Heightened sensation-seeking behaviors during early adulthood
- Overestimation of personal invulnerability to negative consequences
- Influence of peer pressure on engagement in risky activities
- Developmental changes in risk perception and assessment
- Role of impulsivity in criminal decision-making processes
Mental health issues
- Emergence or exacerbation of mental disorders during early adulthood
- Comorbidity between substance use disorders and other mental health conditions
- Impact of trauma and adverse childhood experiences on adult mental health
- Relationship between untreated mental illness and criminal behavior
- Challenges in accessing mental health services for at-risk young adults
Social context
- Provides the environmental framework within which individual behavior develops and manifests
- Influences opportunities, constraints, and social norms that shape criminal tendencies
- Interacts with personal characteristics to create unique pathways to criminal involvement or desistance
Peer influence
- Shift from adolescent peer groups to adult social networks
- Impact of delinquent peer associations on criminal behavior
- Role of prosocial peers in promoting positive life choices
- Influence of romantic partners on criminal involvement or desistance
- Changes in peer dynamics as individuals transition into adult roles (work, family)
Romantic relationships
- Formation of long-term partnerships and their stabilizing effects
- Potential for intimate partner violence and domestic abuse
- Impact of relationship quality on mental health and substance use
- Influence of partner selection on criminal involvement or desistance
- Role of marriage in reducing criminal behavior (marriage effect)
Family dynamics
- Changing relationships with parents and siblings during early adulthood
- Impact of family support or conflict on criminal behavior
- Intergenerational transmission of criminal tendencies
- Influence of becoming a parent on criminal desistance
- Role of family obligations in shaping life choices and priorities
Economic factors
- Significantly impact opportunities, stress levels, and motivations for criminal behavior
- Interact with social and personal factors to create unique risk or protective environments
- Shape long-term trajectories of criminal involvement or legitimate pursuits
Employment opportunities
- Availability of stable, well-paying jobs in the local economy
- Impact of unemployment or underemployment on criminal motivations
- Role of job satisfaction and career advancement in reducing criminal tendencies
- Influence of informal or illegal economies in areas with limited legitimate opportunities
- Barriers to employment for individuals with criminal records or limited education
Financial stress
- Pressure to achieve financial independence during early adulthood
- Impact of debt (student loans, credit cards) on decision-making and risk-taking
- Role of financial instability in motivating property crimes or drug dealing
- Relationship between economic recessions and crime rates among young adults
- Influence of perceived relative deprivation on criminal behavior
Socioeconomic status
- Intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic disadvantage
- Impact of neighborhood poverty on exposure to criminal opportunities
- Role of in accessing legitimate opportunities
- Influence of socioeconomic mobility (upward or downward) on criminal involvement
- Relationship between income inequality and crime rates in early adulthood
Educational impact
- Plays a crucial role in shaping life trajectories and opportunities during early adulthood
- Influences cognitive development, social networks, and career prospects
- Interacts with other factors to create protective or risk environments for criminal behavior
College vs non-college
- Differences in criminal involvement between college attendees and non-attendees
- Impact of college environment on exposure to new ideas and diverse perspectives
- Role of structured activities and academic demands in reducing criminal opportunities
- Influence of college social scenes on substance use and related offenses
- Long-term effects of college education on socioeconomic status and criminal desistance
Vocational training
- Importance of skill development for employment opportunities
- Role of apprenticeships and trade schools in providing alternative career paths
- Impact of vocational programs on reducing recidivism among justice-involved young adults
- Influence of job-specific training on financial stability and life satisfaction
- Challenges in accessing quality vocational programs for disadvantaged youth
Academic achievement
- Relationship between educational attainment and criminal behavior
- Impact of learning disabilities or academic struggles on self-esteem and life choices
- Role of academic success in opening doors to higher education and career opportunities
- Influence of school engagement on reducing truancy and delinquent behaviors
- Long-term effects of educational credentials on employment prospects and social mobility
Substance use
- Represents a significant risk factor for criminal behavior during early adulthood
- Interacts with biological, psychological, and social factors to influence decision-making and behavior
- Can lead to both direct (drug-related offenses) and indirect (crimes to support addiction) criminal involvement
Alcohol consumption
- Peak levels of binge drinking often occur during early adulthood
- Association between alcohol use and various types of criminal behavior (assault, vandalism)
- Impact of alcohol on judgment, impulse control, and risk perception
- Role of drinking culture in social settings and its influence on behavior
- Long-term consequences of heavy alcohol use on brain development and life outcomes
Drug experimentation
- Increased access and opportunities for drug use in early adulthood
- Patterns of polysubstance use and their impact on criminal behavior
- Role of peer influence and social settings in drug experimentation
- Relationship between drug use and specific types of crimes (property crimes, drug dealing)
- Impact of drug experimentation on academic performance and career trajectories
Addiction patterns
- Development of substance use disorders during early adulthood
- Neurobiological changes associated with addiction and their impact on behavior
- Relationship between addiction severity and criminal involvement
- Challenges in accessing addiction treatment services for young adults
- Impact of addiction on family relationships, employment, and overall life stability
Legal considerations
- Frame the formal societal response to criminal behavior in early adulthood
- Influence long-term consequences of criminal involvement through official sanctions and interventions
- Interact with individual and social factors to shape trajectories of criminal careers or desistance
Adult criminal justice system
- Transition from juvenile to adult court jurisdiction
- Differences in procedural rights and protections between juvenile and adult systems
- Impact of adult criminal records on future opportunities (employment, housing)
- Role of plea bargaining and its consequences for young adult offenders
- Challenges in navigating the complex adult criminal justice system
Sentencing disparities
- Variations in sentencing outcomes based on age, race, gender, and socioeconomic status
- Impact of mandatory minimum sentences on young adult offenders
- Role of judicial discretion in considering developmental factors in sentencing
- Influence of prior juvenile records on adult sentencing decisions
- Debates surrounding appropriate sanctions for young adult offenders (18-25 age group)
Rehabilitation programs
- Availability and effectiveness of age-appropriate interventions for young adults
- Role of cognitive-behavioral therapy in addressing criminal thinking patterns
- Impact of educational and vocational programs on reducing recidivism
- Challenges in implementing evidence-based practices within correctional settings
- Importance of community-based alternatives to incarceration for young adult offenders
Theoretical perspectives
- Provide frameworks for understanding the complex factors influencing criminal behavior in early adulthood
- Guide research, policy development, and intervention strategies
- Offer different lenses through which to examine the interplay of individual, social, and environmental factors
Life-course theory
- Emphasizes the importance of age-graded life transitions and their impact on criminal behavior
- Focuses on the concept of (marriage, employment) in criminal desistance
- Examines the role of cumulative disadvantage in shaping criminal trajectories
- Highlights the importance of timing and sequencing of life events in early adulthood
- Considers the interplay between human agency and social structure in shaping behavior
Social control theory
- Emphasizes the role of social bonds (attachment, commitment, involvement, belief) in preventing criminal behavior
- Examines how weakening of social bonds during may increase criminal propensity
- Focuses on the importance of informal social controls (family, work, community) in regulating behavior
- Considers how changes in social roles and responsibilities in early adulthood affect criminal involvement
- Explores the relationship between social integration and criminal desistance
Strain theory
- Focuses on the role of negative experiences and emotions in motivating criminal behavior
- Examines how failure to achieve positively valued goals in early adulthood may lead to strain
- Considers the impact of loss of positive stimuli (relationship breakups, job loss) on criminal tendencies
- Explores how presentation of negative stimuli (discrimination, victimization) may increase criminal propensity
- Examines individual differences in coping strategies and their relationship to criminal outcomes
Intervention strategies
- Aim to prevent or reduce criminal behavior among young adults through targeted programs and policies
- Address multiple risk factors across individual, family, peer, and community domains
- Emphasize evidence-based practices and developmentally appropriate approaches
Early prevention programs
- Implementation of school-based programs targeting at-risk youth
- Focus on developing social-emotional skills and problem-solving abilities
- Incorporation of family-based interventions to strengthen protective factors
- Use of mentoring programs to provide positive role models and support
- Implementation of early diversion programs for first-time offenders
Community-based initiatives
- Development of youth empowerment and leadership programs
- Creation of job training and employment opportunities for at-risk young adults
- Implementation of neighborhood revitalization projects to reduce environmental risk factors
- Establishment of community policing initiatives to improve police-youth relations
- Promotion of prosocial activities and recreational opportunities in high-risk areas
Cognitive-behavioral approaches
- Use of cognitive restructuring techniques to address criminal thinking patterns
- Implementation of anger management and impulse control training
- Focus on developing problem-solving and decision-making skills
- Incorporation of social skills training to improve interpersonal relationships
- Use of motivational interviewing to enhance readiness for change
Long-term consequences
- Extend beyond the immediate impact of criminal behavior to shape life trajectories in early adulthood and beyond
- Interact with individual characteristics and social contexts to influence opportunities for positive change
- Highlight the importance of early intervention and support in mitigating negative outcomes
Criminal record impact
- Limitations on employment opportunities due to background checks
- Restrictions on access to higher education and financial aid
- Barriers to housing options, including public and private rentals
- Impact on professional licensing and career advancement
- Potential for deportation or immigration consequences for non-citizens
Career limitations
- Reduced earning potential over the life course
- Difficulty in obtaining security clearances or bonding for certain jobs
- Challenges in entering professions with strict moral character requirements (law, medicine)
- Increased likelihood of underemployment or reliance on informal economies
- Impact on entrepreneurial opportunities and access to business loans
Relationship challenges
- Stigma associated with criminal history affecting romantic partnerships
- Strain on family relationships due to incarceration or criminal involvement
- Limitations on parental rights and child custody arrangements
- Difficulties in forming prosocial peer networks
- Impact on social integration and community acceptance
Cross-cultural comparisons
- Highlight variations in definitions, perceptions, and responses to criminal behavior across different societies
- Provide insights into the role of cultural norms and values in shaping criminal tendencies
- Inform the development of culturally sensitive intervention and prevention strategies
Western vs non-western societies
- Differences in age of criminal responsibility and definitions of adulthood
- Variations in societal attitudes towards youth crime and rehabilitation
- Contrasts in legal systems and approaches to criminal justice (retributive vs restorative)
- Differences in family structures and their influence on young adult behavior
- Variations in cultural values (individualism vs collectivism) and their impact on criminal tendencies
Urban vs rural environments
- Differences in types and rates of criminal behavior between urban and rural areas
- Variations in access to resources and opportunities for young adults
- Contrasts in social control mechanisms and community cohesion
- Differences in exposure to risk factors (gang activity, drug markets) in urban settings
- Variations in law enforcement presence and approaches to crime prevention
Ethnic group differences
- Variations in cultural norms and values influencing criminal behavior
- Differences in experiences of discrimination and its impact on criminal involvement
- Contrasts in access to educational and economic opportunities across ethnic groups
- Variations in family structures and parenting practices influencing young adult behavior
- Differences in community resources and support systems available to different ethnic groups
Key Terms to Review (18)
Age-Crime Curve: The age-crime curve is a sociological concept that illustrates the relationship between age and the propensity to commit crimes, typically showing that criminal activity increases during adolescence, peaks in early adulthood, and declines as individuals reach late adulthood. This curve is crucial for understanding patterns of criminal behavior across different life stages and emphasizes how age-related factors can influence crime rates and types of offenses committed.
Critical Life Transitions: Critical life transitions refer to significant changes in an individual's life that can alter their identity, roles, and social relationships. These transitions often occur during key developmental stages, such as moving from adolescence to early adulthood, and can have profound effects on behavior, including the potential for increased criminal activity as individuals navigate new responsibilities and pressures.
Desistance: Desistance refers to the process through which individuals reduce or cease engaging in criminal behavior, often as they progress through different life stages. It involves various personal, social, and contextual factors that contribute to an individual's decision to stop offending. Understanding desistance is crucial because it highlights how changes in identity, relationships, and responsibilities can influence a person's trajectory away from crime, especially during significant life transitions such as early adulthood.
Economic instability: Economic instability refers to a situation in which an economy experiences significant fluctuations in key indicators like growth rates, inflation, and unemployment. These fluctuations can lead to uncertainty and unpredictability in the economic environment, which affects individual financial situations and broader societal well-being, particularly during early adulthood when individuals are establishing careers and financial independence.
Erikson's Psychosocial Development: Erikson's psychosocial development is a theory that outlines eight stages of human development, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a person's psychological growth. This framework emphasizes the social and emotional challenges individuals face throughout their lives, influencing their identity and behavior, including tendencies towards criminal behavior during early adulthood. Understanding these stages provides insight into how unresolved conflicts may lead to difficulties in relationships and decision-making, potentially impacting criminal activity.
General Strain Theory: General Strain Theory is a sociological framework that explains how individuals may turn to criminal behavior as a response to stressors or strains in their lives. It posits that when people experience negative events, are unable to achieve valued goals, or perceive a lack of fair treatment, they may resort to delinquency as a coping mechanism. This theory is particularly relevant for understanding the relationship between life challenges and criminal behavior at various stages, such as during adolescence, early adulthood, and in response to economic pressures.
Identity Formation: Identity formation is the developmental process through which individuals establish a distinct sense of self, encompassing personal values, beliefs, and social roles. This process is influenced by various life experiences and social contexts, playing a crucial role in how one navigates relationships and societal expectations. It particularly intersects with important life stages and influences such as familial relationships, peer interactions, and broader societal factors that shape an individual's understanding of themselves.
Life course theory: Life course theory is a framework that examines the development of individuals over time, focusing on how social, economic, and cultural factors influence behaviors, including criminal activity. It emphasizes the importance of life stages and transitions, particularly how early experiences and choices impact later outcomes. This perspective helps in understanding patterns of criminal behavior across different age groups and life phases, making connections to factors like familial influence, education, and societal norms.
Neighborhood effects: Neighborhood effects refer to the social, economic, and environmental influences that a neighborhood exerts on its residents, impacting behaviors, attitudes, and opportunities. These effects can shape individuals' life outcomes, including educational attainment, employment prospects, and engagement in criminal behavior, highlighting the significant role that one's environment plays in shaping personal development and choices.
Peer Influence: Peer influence refers to the impact that individuals in one's social circle can have on each other's attitudes, behaviors, and decision-making. This phenomenon is especially prominent during critical developmental stages when individuals seek acceptance and validation from their peers, shaping choices related to social activities, risk-taking, and even criminal behavior.
Protective Factors: Protective factors are characteristics or conditions that reduce the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as delinquency or criminal behavior, by promoting resilience and positive development. These factors can include supportive family structures, strong social networks, and positive community engagement, which help individuals navigate challenges and reduce risk.
Risk assessment: Risk assessment is the process of identifying, analyzing, and evaluating potential risks that may lead to negative outcomes, particularly in relation to criminal behavior and individual development. This approach helps in understanding the likelihood of a person engaging in criminal acts based on various factors such as age, psychological profile, and social environment. By assessing these risks, it becomes easier to implement interventions that could mitigate potential criminal behavior.
Robert Agnew: Robert Agnew is a prominent criminologist best known for developing the General Strain Theory, which highlights how societal pressures can lead individuals to commit crimes. His work emphasizes that negative experiences, such as losing a job or experiencing family issues, create strains that can push individuals toward delinquency, particularly during crucial developmental periods like adolescence and early adulthood. This theory is vital for understanding how economic and social factors influence criminal behavior.
Social Capital: Social capital refers to the networks, relationships, and norms that facilitate cooperation and collective action among individuals within a society. It emphasizes the value of social interactions and connections, which can influence behaviors, opportunities, and access to resources that are essential for personal and communal growth.
Social learning theory: Social learning theory posits that individuals learn behaviors, including criminal behavior, through observation and imitation of others, particularly within their social environments. This theory emphasizes the importance of social interactions and experiences, suggesting that behaviors are reinforced through rewards or punishments from these interactions, thereby shaping future actions.
Terrie Moffitt: Terrie Moffitt is a prominent clinical psychologist known for her pioneering research on the development of antisocial behavior and criminality. Her work emphasizes the importance of understanding the interplay between individual characteristics and environmental factors throughout different life stages, particularly in adolescence and early adulthood, and how these factors contribute to various developmental pathways leading to crime.
Transition to adulthood: Transition to adulthood refers to the process by which individuals move from the dependency of childhood into the autonomy and responsibilities of adult life. This phase often encompasses various life changes, including achieving educational and occupational milestones, establishing intimate relationships, and assuming adult roles in society. Understanding this transition is crucial as it highlights the factors that can influence behaviors, including criminal behavior, during early adulthood.
Turning Points: Turning points are significant events or experiences that can lead to substantial changes in an individual's life trajectory, particularly concerning behavior and social relationships. They serve as crucial moments where individuals may shift from one path to another, often influencing their likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior or altering their life course in a meaningful way. Understanding turning points helps to explain how personal development and environmental factors intersect at various stages of life.