🏛️Congress Unit 1 – Introduction to the U.S. Congress

Structure and Composition

• The U.S. Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives
  • The Senate has 100 members, with 2 Senators representing each state regardless of population
  • The House of Representatives has 435 members, with seats allocated to states based on their population
• Senators serve 6-year terms, while Representatives serve 2-year terms
• The Constitution sets the minimum age for Senators at 30 years old and Representatives at 25 years old
• Congress is responsible for creating, debating, and passing legislation at the federal level
• The structure of Congress is designed to balance the interests of smaller and larger states through the bicameral system
• The composition of Congress has become increasingly diverse over time, with growing representation of women, minorities, and various professional backgrounds
  • However, Congress still does not perfectly mirror the demographic makeup of the U.S. population

Constitutional Powers

• Article I of the U.S. Constitution grants Congress its legislative powers and outlines its responsibilities
• Congress has the power to levy taxes, regulate commerce, coin money, declare war, and raise and support armies
• The Constitution grants Congress the authority to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers (the "Elastic Clause")
• Congress has the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch through committees and hearings
• The House of Representatives has the sole power to initiate revenue bills and to impeach federal officials
• The Senate has the power to ratify treaties, confirm presidential appointments, and conduct trials for federal officials impeached by the House
• The Constitution's system of checks and balances gives Congress the ability to limit the powers of the other branches (executive and judiciary)

Legislative Process

• The legislative process begins when a bill is introduced in either the House or the Senate by a member of Congress
• Bills are referred to relevant committees for review, debate, and potential amendments
  • Committees hold hearings, call witnesses, and markup bills before deciding whether to send them to the full chamber
• If a bill passes one chamber, it is sent to the other chamber for consideration
  • The second chamber may pass the bill as is, make amendments, or reject it entirely
• If the House and Senate pass different versions of a bill, a conference committee is formed to reconcile the differences and create a final version
• Once a bill passes both chambers in identical form, it is sent to the President for approval or veto
  • If the President signs the bill, it becomes law
  • If the President vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers
• The budget process follows a similar path, with the President submitting a budget proposal and Congress passing appropriations bills to fund government agencies and programs

Committees and Leadership

• Much of the work in Congress is done through a system of committees and subcommittees
  • There are standing committees that have jurisdiction over specific policy areas (agriculture, armed services, etc.) and select committees formed for specific purposes
• Committee chairs and ranking members play a significant role in setting the agenda and directing the work of their committees
• The majority and minority parties in each chamber select their respective leadership teams
  • In the House, the Speaker is the top leadership position, followed by the Majority and Minority Leaders and Whips
  • In the Senate, the Majority and Minority Leaders and Whips are the primary leadership positions
• Party leaders are responsible for setting legislative priorities, managing their caucuses, and negotiating with the other party and the executive branch
• The Speaker of the House, elected by the majority party, is second in the line of succession for the presidency after the Vice President
• The President Pro Tempore of the Senate, typically the senior member of the majority party, presides over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President

Elections and Representation

• Members of Congress are elected directly by the people of their states or districts
  • Senators are elected by a statewide vote, while Representatives are elected by voters in their specific congressional districts
• Congressional elections take place every two years, with all 435 House seats and about one-third of Senate seats up for election each cycle
• Redistricting, the process of redrawing congressional district boundaries, occurs every ten years following the decennial census
  • Gerrymandering, the manipulation of district boundaries for partisan advantage, is a controversial issue in many states
• Incumbents often have a significant advantage in congressional elections due to factors like name recognition, fundraising ability, and the power of the office
• Members of Congress are expected to represent the interests of their constituents while also considering national priorities
  • Balancing local and national concerns can be a challenge for members, particularly when their constituents' views differ from their party's positions

Party Politics and Coalitions

• The two major political parties, Democrats and Republicans, dominate the landscape in Congress
  • Third parties and independent members have had limited success in winning congressional seats
• Party affiliation plays a significant role in shaping a member's voting behavior and policy positions
  • Members often face pressure to follow the party line on key votes and issues
• The majority party in each chamber controls the legislative agenda, committee chairmanships, and the allocation of resources
• Coalition-building is essential for passing legislation, particularly in the Senate, where a 60-vote supermajority is often needed to overcome a filibuster
  • Bipartisan coalitions can form around specific issues or legislation, even if the parties are at odds on broader policy matters
• Polarization between the parties has increased in recent decades, making compromise and consensus-building more challenging
  • This polarization is driven by factors like ideological sorting, partisan media, and the influence of interest groups and activists

Relationship with Other Branches

• Congress's relationship with the executive branch is characterized by both cooperation and conflict
  • Congress has the power to confirm or reject presidential appointments, ratify treaties, and override presidential vetoes
  • The President can veto legislation passed by Congress, but Congress can override that veto with a two-thirds majority in both chambers
• Congress exercises oversight over the executive branch through committee hearings, investigations, and the power of the purse
  • Congress can use its appropriations power to influence executive branch policies and priorities
• The relationship between Congress and the judiciary is shaped by the Constitution's system of checks and balances
  • Congress has the power to create and abolish federal courts, set the size of the Supreme Court, and confirm or reject judicial nominees
  • The judiciary has the power to interpret laws and determine their constitutionality, which can lead to tensions with Congress when laws are struck down

Contemporary Issues and Reforms

• Congress faces a range of complex policy challenges, including budget deficits, healthcare, immigration, climate change, and national security
  • Partisan polarization and gridlock can make it difficult for Congress to address these issues effectively
• There have been various proposals to reform Congress and make it more responsive, efficient, and accountable
  • Term limits for members of Congress have been proposed as a way to reduce the influence of career politicians and bring in fresh perspectives
  • Campaign finance reform aims to reduce the influence of money in politics and level the playing field for candidates
• Efforts to increase transparency and public engagement include requiring more disclosure of lobbying activities and making congressional proceedings more accessible through technology
• Some argue that the current system of congressional redistricting contributes to polarization and reduces competitiveness in elections
  • Proposals for reform include independent redistricting commissions and the use of algorithms to draw district boundaries
• The filibuster, a procedural tool used in the Senate to delay or block legislation, has come under scrutiny as a source of gridlock and obstruction
  • Some have called for eliminating or reforming the filibuster to make it easier for the majority party to advance its agenda