1.2 The Process of Science
4 min read•june 18, 2024
is all about exploring the natural world through careful and experimentation. It's a systematic way of uncovering the secrets of our universe, from the tiniest cells to the vastness of space.
The is the backbone of this exploration. It's a step-by-step process that starts with curiosity, leads to experiments, and ends with new discoveries. This method helps scientists stay objective and build on each other's work.
The Nature of Science
Characteristics of natural sciences
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- Study the natural world by focusing on understanding the physical universe and its phenomena, including fields such as biology, chemistry, physics, and Earth sciences
- Rely on gathered through observations and measurements to support or refute and theories
- Propose testable hypotheses that offer explanations for natural phenomena which can be tested through experiments or further observations
- Ensure by requiring experiments and observations to be repeatable by other scientists to confirm the reliability of results
- Maintain by minimizing bias and personal opinions in the interpretation of data and using standardized methods and statistical analyses
- Draw tentative conclusions acknowledging that scientific knowledge is subject to change as new evidence emerges, and theories can be modified or replaced when new data challenges existing understanding
- Develop scientific theories, which are well-substantiated explanations of natural phenomena supported by multiple lines of evidence and widely accepted by the scientific community
Steps of scientific method
- Observation: Identify a phenomenon or problem to be investigated and gather information through careful observation and background research
- : Propose a testable explanation for the observed phenomenon, often stated as an "if-then" statement
- : Develop a procedure to test the , identify variables to be manipulated (independent) and measured (dependent), and include controls to minimize the effect of extraneous factors
- Utilize controlled experiments when possible, where all variables except the one being tested are kept constant
- and analysis: Conduct the experiment, gather data, and organize and analyze the data using appropriate statistical methods
- : Interpret the results to determine if the hypothesis is supported or refuted and draw conclusions based on the evidence obtained
- Publication and : Share findings with the scientific community through publications and allow other scientists to scrutinize the work and attempt to replicate the results
- and further investigation: Encourage other researchers to reproduce the study, build upon the findings, refine hypotheses, and conduct additional experiments to expand knowledge
Inductive vs deductive reasoning
- draws general conclusions from specific observations, moving from the specific to the general (observing that all sampled birds lay eggs and concluding that all birds lay eggs)
- uses general principles to make specific predictions, moving from the general to the specific (using the principle that all mammals have hair to predict that a newly discovered mammal species will have hair)
Basic vs applied research
- aims to expand fundamental knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena, driven by curiosity and the desire to discover new principles, and may not have immediate practical applications (studying the molecular basis of genetic inheritance, investigating the evolution of species)
- aims to solve specific problems or develop new technologies, builds upon the foundation of basic research to create practical solutions, and often has direct commercial or societal benefits (developing new drugs to treat diseases, creating more efficient renewable energy sources)
The Scientific Method in Practice
Characteristics of natural sciences
- Follow a systematic approach to investigate natural phenomena, ensuring that research is conducted in a logical and organized manner
- Require scientific claims to be , meaning they must be testable and capable of being proven false, as theories that cannot be disproven are not considered scientific
Steps of scientific method
- Recognize that the scientific method is an iterative process, not always linear, and steps may be repeated or revisited as new information is obtained, with conclusions from one study often leading to new questions and hypotheses for further investigation
- Apply the scientific method in various real-world applications across fields, from biology and chemistry to psychology and social sciences (testing the effectiveness of a new vaccine, investigating the impact of climate change on ecosystems)
Data interpretation and scientific conclusions
- Distinguish between and when analyzing relationships between variables
- Understand that correlation indicates a relationship between variables, but does not necessarily imply that one causes changes in the other
- Recognize that establishing causation requires additional evidence and controlled experiments to rule out other potential factors
Scientific community and communication
- Emphasize the importance of replication in scientific research to validate findings and ensure reliability
- Recognize that emerges when a large majority of experts in a field agree on the interpretation of evidence and accept a particular explanation or theory
- Promote to enable individuals to understand and evaluate scientific information, make informed decisions, and participate in public discussions on scientific issues
Key Terms to Review (42)
Applied Research: Applied research is a type of scientific inquiry that seeks to solve practical problems by applying existing knowledge and theories to real-world situations. This form of research is often driven by the need for specific answers or solutions, aiming to improve processes, products, or services through empirical investigation and experimentation.
Applied science: Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to develop practical applications, such as technology or inventions. It bridges the gap between basic science and real-world solutions.
Basic research: Basic research refers to the scientific study aimed at increasing our fundamental understanding of various phenomena, without a specific application or commercial goal in mind. This type of research lays the groundwork for applied research by providing the essential knowledge that can lead to practical applications, ultimately helping to advance fields like biology, physics, and chemistry.
Basic science: Basic science is the study of fundamental principles and theories in various scientific fields without immediate practical application. It aims to increase understanding of natural phenomena through observation, experimentation, and analysis.
Causation: Causation refers to the relationship between cause and effect, where one event (the cause) directly influences another event (the effect). Understanding causation is crucial in the scientific process, as it helps researchers identify whether a change in one variable is responsible for changes in another, allowing for clearer conclusions and valid interpretations of data.
Conclusion: A conclusion is the final statement or decision that summarizes the findings from an investigation or research. It integrates the results of the study, evaluates them against the original hypothesis, and indicates whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected. A well-crafted conclusion reflects on the significance of the findings, their implications, and potential future research directions.
Control: A control is a standard of comparison for checking or verifying the results of an experiment. It helps isolate the effect of the independent variable by providing a baseline that remains unaffected by the experimental treatment.
Controlled experiment: A controlled experiment is a scientific test where one variable is changed while all other variables are kept constant to determine the effect of that single variable. This method is essential for establishing a cause-and-effect relationship, allowing scientists to isolate and measure the impact of specific factors on the outcomes being studied.
Correlation: Correlation refers to a statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables change together. When variables are correlated, it means that as one variable changes, there is a predictable change in the other variable, which can be either positive or negative. Understanding correlation is essential in science for establishing relationships between factors, guiding further research, and interpreting data accurately.
Data analysis: Data analysis is the systematic process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to discover useful information, inform conclusions, and support decision-making. This process is crucial in the scientific method, where it allows researchers to interpret data collected from experiments or observations, making sense of complex information and helping to validate or refute hypotheses.
Data collection: Data collection is the systematic process of gathering, measuring, and analyzing information from various sources to answer research questions or test hypotheses. This process is essential in scientific research, as it forms the foundation for drawing conclusions and making informed decisions based on empirical evidence.
Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning is a logical process where conclusions are drawn from a set of premises, which are generally assumed to be true. It moves from generalized principles to specific instances.
Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning is a logical process in which a conclusion is reached based on the concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true. This type of reasoning is crucial in scientific inquiry as it allows scientists to test hypotheses and draw conclusions that are logically derived from established facts or theories. By moving from general principles to specific instances, deductive reasoning plays a vital role in the formulation of predictions and the development of scientific laws.
Dependent variable: A dependent variable is the factor in an experiment that is measured or observed to assess the effect of changes made to an independent variable. It is essentially what you are trying to find out or the outcome that depends on the experimental conditions you set. Understanding this concept is crucial as it helps differentiate what you're manipulating in a study versus what you're observing as a result.
Descriptive: Descriptive research involves gathering data to describe phenomena without influencing it. It aims to provide a comprehensive summary of events, conditions, or behaviors based on observation and measurement.
Empirical evidence: Empirical evidence refers to information acquired by observation or experimentation that can be verified through the senses. This type of evidence forms the foundation for scientific inquiry, as it is used to support or refute hypotheses and theories. It is essential for ensuring that scientific conclusions are based on observable phenomena rather than speculation.
Experiment design: Experiment design is the process of planning a controlled experiment to test a hypothesis, ensuring that the data collected will be valid, reliable, and interpretable. This involves identifying variables, creating a framework for experimentation, and determining how results will be measured and analyzed. It is crucial for maintaining the integrity of scientific inquiry and helps to draw meaningful conclusions from observations.
Falsifiability: Falsifiability is the principle that a statement or hypothesis can be proven false through observation or experimentation. This concept is crucial in the scientific method, as it allows scientists to test the validity of their ideas and theories. If a claim cannot be tested and potentially disproven, it falls outside the realm of scientific inquiry, emphasizing the need for clear and measurable predictions.
Falsifiable: Falsifiable means a hypothesis or theory can be proven false by evidence. It is a key criterion for scientific validity.
Hypotheses: Hypotheses are testable statements or predictions that can be evaluated through experimentation and observation. They play a crucial role in the scientific method, guiding researchers in their inquiries and helping them make sense of the natural world. A well-formulated hypothesis provides a basis for conducting experiments, collecting data, and ultimately reaching conclusions about a given phenomenon.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable statement that explains a phenomenon or predicts an outcome. It serves as the basis for scientific experiments and observations.
Hypothesis formation: Hypothesis formation is the process of developing a testable statement that predicts an outcome based on observations or existing knowledge. This step is crucial in scientific inquiry as it provides a clear direction for experimentation and data collection, allowing researchers to validate or refute their predictions through systematic investigation.
Hypothesis-based science: Hypothesis-based science involves formulating a hypothesis and conducting experiments to test its validity. It is a systematic approach used to answer specific scientific questions through empirical investigation.
Independent variable: An independent variable is a factor in an experiment that is intentionally manipulated to observe its effect on a dependent variable. It serves as the cause or input in a cause-and-effect relationship, allowing scientists to establish patterns and draw conclusions based on the results of their experiments. Understanding independent variables is crucial in the scientific method, as it helps researchers design experiments that yield reliable and valid data.
Inductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations or experiments. It moves from specific instances to broader conclusions.
Inductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning is a logical process where multiple premises, which are believed to be true, are combined to form a general conclusion. This type of reasoning is crucial in scientific investigation, as it allows scientists to formulate hypotheses and theories based on observed patterns and evidence. By moving from specific observations to broader generalizations, inductive reasoning helps in building knowledge incrementally.
Life sciences: Life sciences encompass the study of living organisms and life processes. It includes various fields such as biology, botany, zoology, microbiology, and ecology.
Natural sciences: Natural sciences refer to the branch of science that studies the physical world, including the laws of nature and the phenomena occurring within it. This field encompasses disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, and Earth sciences, focusing on understanding the natural processes that govern our environment. The natural sciences utilize observation, experimentation, and analysis to generate knowledge and formulate theories about how the universe operates.
Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the practice of perceiving and analyzing information without bias or personal influence, striving to maintain neutrality and impartiality in the scientific process. This principle is fundamental in science, as it ensures that observations, data, and conclusions are based on factual evidence rather than subjective opinions or emotions, allowing for reliable and reproducible results.
Observation: Observation is the process of gathering information through the senses, which is fundamental to scientific inquiry. It involves noticing and recording phenomena in a systematic manner, helping scientists formulate questions, generate hypotheses, and test theories. Observations can be qualitative, describing characteristics, or quantitative, measuring numerical data.
Peer review: Peer review is the process by which scholarly work, research, or ideas are evaluated by experts in the same field before publication or presentation. This critical evaluation serves to ensure the quality, validity, and relevance of the work, acting as a quality control mechanism in the scientific community that helps maintain standards and credibility.
Peer-reviewed articles: Peer-reviewed articles are scholarly papers reviewed by multiple experts in the field before publication to ensure accuracy and credibility. They are essential for validating scientific research through an unbiased evaluation process.
Physical sciences: Physical sciences are branches of science that study non-living systems, encompassing areas such as physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth sciences. They focus on understanding the laws and principles governing matter and energy in the universe.
Replication: Replication is the process of copying biological material, such as DNA, to produce identical copies that ensure the continuity of genetic information across generations. This process is crucial in various biological contexts, including cell division and the maintenance of genetic integrity, as it enables organisms to pass on their genetic traits to their offspring while also allowing for repair mechanisms to address any potential damage.
Reproducibility: Reproducibility is the ability of a research study or experiment to be repeated with the same methodology and yield similar results. This concept is crucial for validating scientific findings, as it ensures that results are not just a one-time occurrence but can be observed under consistent conditions. Reproducibility helps build trust in scientific knowledge, allowing researchers to confirm findings and contribute to a more reliable body of evidence.
Science: Science is a systematic approach to understanding the natural world through observation, experimentation, and evidence-based conclusions. It relies on the scientific method to test hypotheses and develop theories.
Scientific consensus: Scientific consensus refers to the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the majority of scientists in a particular field regarding a specific scientific issue. This agreement is reached through extensive research, peer review, and replication of results, reflecting a well-substantiated understanding of the topic among experts. It signifies that a hypothesis or theory has gained widespread acceptance based on accumulated evidence and is considered reliable for guiding further scientific inquiry and policy decisions.
Scientific laws: Scientific laws are statements based on repeated experimental observations that describe some aspect of the universe. They predict the results of certain initial conditions and are universally accepted within the scientific community.
Scientific literacy: Scientific literacy is the ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific concepts and principles in everyday life. It involves not only knowledge of scientific facts but also the skills to evaluate information, engage in scientific inquiry, and make informed decisions based on evidence.
Scientific method: The scientific method is a systematic approach used to investigate natural phenomena, develop hypotheses, conduct experiments, and analyze data to draw conclusions. This process involves observation, measurement, and testing to ensure reliable and repeatable results, forming the foundation of scientific inquiry and understanding.
Scientific theory: A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, developed through repeated observation, experimentation, and reasoning. It is not just a guess or hypothesis; rather, it is a comprehensive framework that integrates and interprets a wide range of observations and experimental results. Scientific theories are subject to testing and revision based on new evidence, allowing them to evolve over time.
Variable: A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types within an experiment. In biology, variables are crucial for testing hypotheses and observing outcomes.